egyptian mythology research papers

• DOI: 10.1086/373483
• Corpus ID: 162233011

Egyptian Myth and Discourse: Myth, Gods, and the Early Written and Iconographic Record

• John D. Baines
• Published in Journal of Near Eastern… 1 April 1991

41 Citations

The mythic mind, egyptology and political theology: an examination of the ethics of scholarship, egyptian texts relating to the exodus: discussions of exodus parallels in the egyptology literature, the religious and cultural background of joseph smith papyrus i, some recent trends in the archaeology of predynastic egypt, understanding early civilizations : a comparative study, steps toward an archaeology of taboo, once more with feeling:, the journey through the netherworld and the death of the sun god: a novel reading of exodus 7–15 in light of the book of gates, journal of ancient egyptian interconnections 17 (march 2018), 11 references, plutarch's de iside et osiride, related papers.

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Home Revue de l'histoire des religions 4 Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth

Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth

This article discusses functions and uses of myth in ancient Egypt as a contribution to comparative research. Applications of myth are reviewed in order to present a basic general typology of usages: from political, scholarly, ritual, and medical applications, through incorporation in images, to linguistic and literary exploitations. In its range of function and use, Egyptian myth is similar to that of other civilizations, except that written narratives appear to have developed relatively late. The many attested forms and uses underscore its flexibility, which has   entailed   many interpretations starting with assessments of the Osiris myth reported by Plutarch (2 nd century AD). Myths conceptualize, describe, explain, and control the world, and they   were   adapted to an ever-changing reality.

Cet article discute les fonctions et les usages du mythe en Égypte ancienne dans une perspective comparatiste et passe en revue ses applications, afin de proposer une typologie générale de ses usages – applications politiques, érudites, rituelles et médicales, incorporation dans des images, exploitation linguistique et littéraire. De ce point de vue, le mythe égyptien ne diffère pas des autres mythes, avec la particularité que la mise en récits écrits semble s’être développée assez tard. Les nombreux usages et formes attestés mettent en évidence sa plasticité, source de nombreuses interprétations depuis les comptes rendus du mythe osirien par Plutarque au ii e  s. apr. J.-C. Les mythes conceptualisent, expliquent et contrôlent le monde, et s’adaptent donc à une réalité toujours mouvante.

Author's notes

This article is based upon a fuller study to appear in Hubert Roeder (ed.), Handbuch der ägyptischen Religion , a pre-publication version of which is online at http://ora.ox.ac.uk . More detailed references are available there.

• 1 Synesios of Cyrene: Martin Hose (ed.), Ägyptische Erzählungen oder Über die Vorsehung , Tübingen, Mo (...)

Ὁ γὰρ μύθος φιλοσόφημα παίδων ἐστίν For myth is a form of philosophy for children . Synesios of Cyrene, Egyptian Tales –   or On Providence, First Logos, Chapter 2.2. 1

• 2 Katja Goebs, “A Functional Approach to Egyptian Myth and Mythemes”, Journal of Near Eastern Religio (...)
• 3 The current term, deriving from the structuralism of Claude Lévi-Strauss, who defined them as “gros (...)
• 4 Heike Sternberg el-Hotabi, Mythische Motive und Mythenbildung in den ägyptischen Tempeln der griech (...)
• 5 Siegfried Schott, Mythe und Mythenbildung im alten Ägypten , Leipzig, J. C. Hinrichs’sche Buchhandlu (...)
• 6 Jan Assmann, “Die Verborgenheit des Mythos in Ägypten”, Göttinger Miszellen 25, 1977, p. 7‑43, and (...)
• 7 Jan Assmann, “Die Zeugung des Sohnes. Bild, Spiel, Erzählung, und das Problem des ägyptischen Mytho (...)
• 8 Vladimir Propp, Morphology of the Folktale 2 (trans. from the 1928 Russian by L. Scott), Austin, Uni (...)
• 9 Walter Burkert, e.g. “The Organization of Myth”, in: id ., Structure and History in Greek Mythology (...)
• 10 Eugene Dorfman, The Narreme in the Medieval Romance Epic. An introduction to narrative structures , (...)

1 In a group of essays such as this, which seeks to answer the question of what an Egyptian myth “is”, one may perhaps start by saying a few words on terminology and establishing parameters, with a view to defining a framework for the wide range of the other contributions. In this context it is essential to clarify the distinction between fully-developed, coherent, and normally narrative forms of myths and their building blocks: the mythical actors, objects, and locations, which may stand in varying relationships with one another. 2 Such constitutive elements of myths have been termed mythemes, 3 mythologemes, 4 mythical allusions or statements, 5 mythical constellations, 6 or icons. 7 In other disciplines, their equivalents may be named functions, 8 motifemes, 9 or narremes. 10 We use “mythemes” for such “snippets” of myths.

• 11 See e.g. Michael S. Gazzaniga, “Organization of the Human Brain”, Science 245(4921), 1989, p. 947‑9 (...)
• 12 See already John Baines, “Egyptian Myth and Discourse: myth, gods, and the early written and iconog (...)

2 A combination of mythemes may make a myth, but scholars have long discussed whether the attestation of mythemes independent of a narrative context permits one to infer the pre-existence of such a mythical narrative from which these mythemes would have derived, or whether the mythical actors and their “constellations”, as Jan Assmann, the chief proponent of this view, long argued (see n. 6), existed independently of a coherent storyline. Research based on findings in cognitive sciences, which show that the human brain can only comprehend and use snippets of information when it connects them in narrative, 11 suggests that an individual mytheme may only have meaning when underlain by an appropriate narrative. Thus, while mytheme and myth may occur independently, they can hardly have existed independently, and in considering functions of myth we do not distinguish between these two formats unless necessary in a specific case. The dearth of written narratives from Egypt and their slow growth as a genre probably have much to do with the greater prestige of pictorial images over writing, especially in early periods, and with the restricted range of uses of writing at least until the Middle Kingdom. 12 They do not in themselves point to an absence of narrative in the culture. In sum, we see no need to depart from a traditional definition of myth as a narrative that is mostly set outside the present world and relates to the world of the gods.

• 13 See e.g. Saphinaz A. Naguib,“‘Fille du dieu’, ‘épouse du dieu’, ‘mère du dieu’ ou la métaphore fémi (...)

3 Implicit in the existence of many different mythemes is their potential to be variously combined and to produce manifold accounts, of varying length and format, of relationships between the different deities of the pantheon, their characteristics, and the localities and objects with which they are associated. Good Egyptian examples of this are how Hathor and other solar Eye goddesses may be – even at the same time – mothers, wives, and daughters, mostly of solar deities, and can occur in varying guises, including those of woman, cow, lioness, snake, but also tree, rock formation, and others; four of these are encapsulated in a single Late Period statue ( Fig.   1 ). 13

Fig. 1. Sandstone statue of Hathor in four forms: cow, snake with human head, Hathor-Nebet-hetepet, with head of a lioness.

Late Period. Height 67 cm, depth 73 cm. Paris, Musée du Louvre, E 26032.

Photo © RMN-Grand Palais (Musée du Louvre) / Franck Raux.

• 14 See Rolf Krauss, Astronomische Konzepte und Jenseitsvorstellungen in den Pyramidentexten , Wiesbaden (...)
• 15 For summaries of theories: Mark Smith, Following Osiris. Perspectives on the Osirian Afterlife from (...)
• 16 Hymn to Osiris, enumerating cult centres, roles, and manifestations including Orion, bringer of veg (...)
• 17 Andreas Pries, Die Stundenwachen im Osiriskult: Eine Studie zur Tradition und späten Rezeption von (...)

4 Other examples include Osiris, who can be a celestial deity from the Pyramid Texts onwards, where he is identified with the constellation Orion, 14 yet he is also the source of legitimate kingship for the king as Horus and is primarily associated with rule over the afterlife and thus with death and the subterranean realm. 15 Aspects of deities are particularly explicit in the collections of epithets found in hymns and litanies such as the New Kingdom Litany of Re , which lists 72 different names and roles of the sungod, 16 or texts such as the Ptolemaic Book of Hours , 17 which focuses on the many roles of Osiris.

5 In line with their multifaceted nature, myths played a role in many areas of Egyptian culture and are attested in diverse media and genres that include:

Fully composed, written mythical narratives; such stories may also have been recited and performed in lost oral settings;

Written excerpts that could be quoted in many different contexts;

Iconic evocations of individual mythical actors, objects, or scenarios, used on their own – for example as amulets – or in combination with other referents or media, within pictorial compositions or in architectural forms.

6 This abundance of potential formats and applications, in turn, will have had additional bearing on the conspicuous flexibility in the characteristics of individual mythical actors, and the manifold and varying relationships in which they could stand with one another, as well as the contexts in which they could be used. This process may be modelled as one of spiralling as well as hermeneutic causation, incorporating components along the lines illustrated in Fig.   2 .

Fig. 2. Graphic of the interaction of aspects and functions of deities, on the example of Osiris.

• 18 See in general Mark S. Smith,  God in Translation: Deities in cross-cultural discourse in the biblic (...)
• 19 See Keiko Tazawa, Syro-Palestinian Deities in New Kingdom Egypt: The hermeneutics of their existenc (...)

7 With these preliminaries in mind we introduce what we consider to be the most important types of occurrences of myth in Egypt, with the aim of homing in on a more productive definition of this concept. In proposing this kind of typology, we hope to facilitate discussion, and potentially comparison, with other traditions. Some of these, such as the Near Eastern or Greek traditions, influenced that of Egypt, at least in later periods. Moreover, the interpretatio graeca of the Egyptian pantheon 18 attests to the “translatability” of its mythical actors; the same applies in the opposite direction to the integration, assimilation, and “Egyptianization” of foreign deities. 19 If comparable typologies can be established for these other traditions, it may become more feasible to approximate the essence of myth. For reasons of space, we treat only a small number of mythical uses. We also concede that there is some overlap among our proposed categories.

I/ Aetiological uses; Mythical framing of this-worldly events

• 20 Examples in Dimitri Meeks, Mythes et légendes du delta d’après le Papyrus Brooklyn 47.218.84 , Cairo (...)
• 21 Erik Hornung, Der ägyptische Mythos von der Himmelskuh: Eine Ätiologie des Unvollkommenen , 2 nd  ed., (...)
• 22 See e.g. Betsy M. Bryan , “ Hatshepsut and Cultic Revelries in the New Kingdom”, in: José M. Galán, B (...)

8 A relatively common function of Egyptian myth is aetiology, in which a narrative element accounts for the origin and meaning of certain phenomena ranging from the establishment of the cosmos and the state to specific rules of behaviour or names of places, deities, or festivals. The explanations are often based on analogy, which may be phonetic, substantive, or a simple assertion of a link. In Egypt, aetiologies are commonly framed in terms of “This is how/when X came into being ( ḫpr X ( pw ))”, although other formats are equally widespread. 20 Cosmic and ritual examples of this pattern are found, for example, in the New Kingdom Book of the Heavenly Cow (or Destruction of Mankind ), 21 which explains the rhythm of day and night, the origin of the “Festival of Drunkenness” in honour of the solar Eye-goddess Hathor, and that of some of her epithets. 22

A. Aetiology of a Divine Epithet –   Phonetic Analogy

• 23 Translations based on E. Hornung, Der ägyptische Mythos von der Himmelskuh : A: p. 9, 40, 58 with nn (...)

B. Aetiology of a Festival –   Substantive Analogy, based in mythical precedent

C. Aetiology of a Cosmic Situation –   Analogy plainly asserted

• 24 Wolfgang Wettengel, Die Erzählung von den beiden Brüdern. Der Papyrus d’Orbiney und die Königsideol (...)

9 In some cases, the aetiological significance of a myth is less explicit, as when an entire myth accounts for a particular state of affairs. For example, Wolfgang Wettengel has proposed that the Tale of the Two Brothers may include a justification of the kingship of Baal (here named Bata), and thus of an originally Canaanite/Near Eastern figure, as ruler of Egypt. 24 We address further examples below.

• 25 See Paula Philippson, Genealogie als mythische Form. Studien zur Theogonie des Hesiod , Oslo, Brøgge (...)

26 See K. Goebs, “How ‘Royal’ (and how ‘Mythical’) are the Coffin Texts?”, (in press).

10 Besides aetiologies, simple couching in mythical terms is common. The Egyptians, like many other cultures, employed a genealogical system of temporal, structural, and political succession to explain the origins and configuration of the world, with a creator deity making himself into many and passing on his powers. 25 In early sources such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts the most common pattern is a cosmic succession, in which the sungod as creator bestows kingship on transitory successors, such as the moon (as in the Cow Book ), morning star, or Osiris-Orion. 26 In the terrestrial sphere, the succession of the heir to the throne after his father’s death is normally presented in terms of Horus succeeding Osiris, as in the Ramesside mythical compositions of the Contendings of Horus and Seth , or the somewhat later Memphite Theology . This succession is at the same time viewed as reflecting the glorious rule of Re or Harakhte following the darkness of the night. In the Victory stela of Piye (ca. 730 bce), Peftjauawybast addresses Piye in such cosmic terms:

• 27 Lines 75‑76; see e.g. Robert K. Ritner, The Libyan Anarchy. Inscriptions from Egypt’s Third Interme (...)

11 Mythical aetiologies generally explain, justify, or rationalize an aspect of the world or a specific situation.

II/ Political Uses

• 28 Hellmut Brunner , Die Geburt des Gottkönigs: Studien zur Überlieferung eines altägyptischen Mythos 2 , (...)
• 29 Mohamed Megahed and Hana Vymazalová, “Ancient Egyptian Royal Circumcision from the Pyramid Complex (...)

12 As is evident in this last example, myths were mobilized politically, the most important probably being the conception of the king as deputy and bodily offspring of the god(s), which is most explicit in the Myth of the Divine Birth . 28 This is attested from the Old Kingdom onwards, 29 with a full version, combining images and text, being known from the early 18th dynasty reign of Hatshepsut. The head of the pantheon, here Amun-Re, takes on the form of the ruling king to impregnate the queen, whose offspring, the heir to the throne, is thus the god’s “bodily son ( zᴣ n ẖt )”, a widespread epithet of kings from early on. The deity explicitly confers rule on the newborn child.

30 Alan H . Gardiner , The Royal Canon of Turin , Oxford, Griffith Institute, 1959, pl. I, fr. 11.

• 31 On the dynasty of gods, and its transmutations in later copies, see E. Hornung, Der ägyptische Myth (...)

13 Such political myths served to cement the the king’s and the dynasty’s claim to the throne. Perhaps more importantly, they underpinned the very existence of the state and its system of rule. Thus, the 19 th dynasty Turin kinglist enumerates all kings believed to have ruled Egypt to the end of the 17 th dynasty, but the “historical” dynasties, which begin with Meni, are preceded by a dynasty of gods, the Followers of Horus, and a sequence of “spirit” rulers ( ᴣḫw ). 30 The fragmentary list of god-kings (the beginning of which was unfortunately destroyed) starts with Geb, Osiris, Seth, and Horus, that is, the male members of the Heliopolitan Ennead. The Greek version of such a list produced by the historian Manetho a millennium later places Ptah, Re, and Shu before this group; Ptah (translated into Hephaistos) heads the line in accord with the Memphite version of the creation account. As the traditional Ennead would have been headed by (a form of) Atum, the myth of the gods ruling Egypt in antiquity may have been adapted to particular political and religious circumstances – potentially by the time of the Ramesside Royal Canon. 31

• 32 Cassius Dio, LIX, 28, 2‑6, and Egyptian parallels: Hans Peter L’Orange , “Das Geburtsritual der Phar (...)
• 33 Ursula Verhoeven , “ Ein historischer ‘Sitz im Leben’ für die Erzählung von Horus und Seth des Papyru (...)
• 34 Michèle Broze argues for legitimizing Ramesses IV: Mythe et roman en Égypte ancienne. Les aventures (...)

14 This kind of adaptation seems to have been current in Egypt into the Roman Period, and political legitimation emerges as an important application of myth, with some motifs also transmitted to Rome. According to Cassius Dio, the daughter of emperor Caligula was born in a “supernatural way ( daimonios )”, carried to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and placed on the god’s knee, before being handed over to Minerva to be suckled by her. 32 For earlier Egypt some suggest that myths may have been performed to celebrate and legitimize royal accession. Thus, Ursula Verhoeven proposes that the Ramesside narrative version of the Contendings of Horus and Seth may have been used to justify the succession of Rameses V to the throne: in reinforcing the schema of passing the kingship from father to son rather than to the deceased king’s brother, this version might reflect a decision in favour of Rameses V and not his uncle, the later Rameses VI. 33 Others have proposed different legitimizing interpretations. 34 Such political purposes might fit with the large amount of deliberation in the tale before the final verdict asserted the status quo and assigned the office to the predecessor’s son, Horus, rather than his brother.

• 35 W . Wettengel , Die Erzählung von den beiden Brüdern , esp. p. 250‑263, who also notes the myth’s sign (...)
• 36 Detlef Franke, Das Heiligtum des Heqaib auf Elephantine: Geschichte eines Provinzheiligtums im Mitt (...)

15 Political legitimation has also been seen as underlying the Ramesside Tale of the Two Brothers , which narrates episodes like those of the struggle of Horus and Seth but with the protagonists being the siblings Anubis and Bata, local gods of Upper Egyptian nomes 17 and 18. Bata, having overcome many attempts on his honour and life, finally becomes king and is ultimately succeeded by his elder brother Anubis. Wolfgang Wettengel has suggested that the text was composed at the command of Seti II of Dynasty 19, who would have sought to legitimize his rule vis-à-vis Amenmesse in this way. 35 Another instance of mythical legitimation of an unusual, fratrilineal inheritance of the throne may be Papyrus Westcar’s birth story of royal triplets, which Detlef Franke tentatively interpreted as relating to the 13th dynasty succession of three brothers, Neferhotep I, Sahathor, and Sobekhotep IV. 36

• 37 Amr El-Hawary , Wortschöpfung. Die Memphitische Theologie und die Siegesstele des Pije –   Zwei Zeugen (...)
• 38 Thomas Schneider, “Mythos und Zeitgeschichte in der 30. Dynastie. Eine politische Lektüre des ‘Myth (...)

16 A different mythical development of the succession of brothers appears in the Memphite Theology on the 25th dynasty Shabaka Stone. Here Geb, as earthgod and first holder of the kingship, bestows the succession initially on both Horus and Seth: Seth is to rule the South, Horus the North; Geb later changes his decision and assigns the entire country to Horus. A political explanation holds that the text would legitimize the Nubian dynasty, which had annexed Egypt progressively: king Shabaka would have needed to justify to Kushite and Egyptian elites that he had “united” Kush and Egypt under a single Kushite rule, and perhaps also the choice of his heir. 37 The 30th dynasty Naos of el-Arish, finally, presents a Myth of Divine Kings in which first Shu and then – after a revolt against him that entails his death – Geb inherits the throne of Re-Harakhte. This myth has been interpreted as relating to the political situation between Dynasties 29 and 30, involving kings Akoris and Nectanebo I. 38

• 39 Jean Revez, “Looking at History through the Prism of Mythology: Can the Osirian myth shed any light (...)
• 40 E.g. Eckhard Frahm, “Counter-texts, Commentaries, and Adaptations: Politically motivated responses (...)

17 If these interpretations are correct, such examples suggest that myths were adapted, and in some cases perhaps composed, to validate a new dynasty, ruler, or individual religious preference and cultural differences, as with the emphasis that Nubian royal texts place on the relationship between Isis and Horus as a mythical precedent for royal accession which, Jean Revez proposes, mobilizes the salience of kings’ mothers and sisters in their ideology. 39 Parallels for such political, legitimizing uses of myth are easily found in other cultures. 40 This may indeed be a general function of such narratives, while the stories’ adaptability to different political scenarios highlights the flexibility of Egyptian myths.

III/ Uses in ritual, magical recitations, medical prescriptions

• 41 Thomas Schneider , “ Die Waffe der Analogie. Altägyptische Magie als System”, in: Manuel Bachmann and (...)
• 42 Papyri Berlin 3053, 3014, 3055; see Nadja S. Braun, Pharao und Priester –   Sakrale Affirmation von H (...)
• 43 K. Goebs, “A Functional Approach to Egyptian Myth and Mythemes”, esp. p. 51‑54 for solar myths; for (...)

18 Extensive written narrative constitutes a tiny portion of evidence for myth in Egypt, with the earliest reasonably clear examples dating to the Middle Kingdom. Instead, from very early on, episodes of mythical cycles (perhaps ones that were prominent in oral contexts) were used to enhance the efficacy of ritual and medico-magical spells and objects through the analogies they presented. 41 The daily ritual of Egyptian temples offers excellent examples, as attested in the 19 th dynasty temple of Seti I at Abydos and early first millennium papyri with versions for Amun and Mut at Karnak. 42 Strikingly, these rituals abound with references to both the Osirian and the solar cycles. Typically, every recipient of the cult has the role of Osiris and performers have those of Osirian helper-deities, including Horus as son and avenger, Anubis as embalmer, and Thoth as keeper and enforcer of divine knowledge and law, as well as judge. 43 Every cult object is referred to as the Eye of Horus, evoking the episode in the struggle between Horus and Seth in which the Eye is lost and later restored, in several versions with Thoth’s help. But solar myths too are mobilized, especially the reappearance of the sun after a period of absence and the ascription of the solar Eye’s sheen to shimmering objects such as crowns or unguents.

• 44 For example, a spell in P. Ebers for removing a bandage (1,12‑2,1) refers both to Horus having been (...)
• 45 See J. F. Borghouts, Ancient Egyptian Magical Texts , p. 51‑55 (no. 84); R. K. Ritner, The Mechanics (...)

19 Also in texts from broadly medical contexts, most mythical analogies draw on episodes from the Osirian cycle, but references to the victorious sunrise are also common. Where mother and child are to be protected, the mother is equated with Isis and the child with her son Horus. Since Isis shielded her child from all adversity, especially attempts on his life by Seth, equating the sick person with Horus would aid their survival and recovery. While such mythemes are widespread in medical papyri, such as Papyri Ebers, Edwin Smith, or Berlin 3027, 44 a particularly striking example is the narrative Legend of Isis and Re , which forms part of a spell against the effects of scorpion bite. Isis uses a scorpion bite, which causes Re unspeakable pain, to extract his sole true name from him, which she then uses in healing counter-magic. 45 Unusually, this spell includes a long mythical narrative, in the course of which Horus appears as the only other person who may have knowledge of Re’s name. Ritual instructions follow at the end:

46 Translation after Borghouts. ‘“ Break out, scorpions! Leave Re! Eye of Horus, leave the god! … See, the great god has given his name away. Re shall live, once the poison has died! NN, born of NN lives, once the poison has died!’ – so said Isis, the great one … who knows Re by his own name. Words to be spoken over an image of Atum-Horus-Hekny, a woman’s figure of Isis and an image of Horus. To be drawn on the hand of the sufferer. To be licked off by the man. To be done in the same manner on a piece of fine linen, to be applied to the sufferer’s throat. The herb is Scorpion’s Herb. To be ground with beer or wine. To be drunk by the one who suffers from scorpion’s sting. It is an excellent means to kill (the effects of) poison, proven an infinite number of times.” 46

20 The amount of detail in this text may suggest that the myth had other applications. The seemingly superfluous reference to passing the secret name on to Horus could, for example, point toward a royal context. Together with the statement at the beginning that kingship over gods and men was identical, this would fit with use in contexts of royal legitimation such as those discussed in section 1.

• 47 E.g. the 30 th dynasty Metternich Stela: James P. Allen, The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt , New Y (...)
• 48 Heike Sternberg-El Hotabi, Zur Überlieferungsgeschichte der Horusstelen: Ein Beitrag zur Religionsg (...)

21 Another myth known only from magico-medical contexts is Isis and the Rich Woman’s Son , which is attested in papyri and on protective statues and stelae (cippi) 47 ( Fig.   9 ) that typically bear images of the Horus child standing on crocodiles, iconizing his triumph over adversity. 48 As in Isis and Re , the goddess is first responsible for, then cures, scorpion bite, again highlighting her role as provider of maternal care and protection. This characteristic produced the iconography of Isis lactans , common, from the New Kingdom onwards, as a motif for amulets, among other contexts (see section 8).

22 The same factors of mythical analogy and precedent applied in funerary ritual contexts, where myth facilitated access to the afterlife or the divine sphere by setting the deceased or cult performer in relation to the gods. The third millennium Pyramid Texts abound with mythical references.

IV/ Intellectual uses

• 49 See also Otto Neugebauer and Richard A. Parker, Egyptian Astronomical Texts , vol. III, Decans, plan (...)

23 Elements of myths served intellectual purposes, as when astronomical texts present the movement of the planets and decans in the forms of Horus, Seth, and Osiris travelling across the sky in barques ( Fig.   3 ). 49

Fig. 3. Decans and planets, with Osiris-Orion, Isis-Sothis, the planets Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars as forms of Horus, and Mercury as Seth.

Ceiling of tomb of Seti I in the Valley of the Kings.

After C. R. Lepsius, Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien , vol. III, Berlin, Nicolai, n.d., pl. 137.

• 50 “ Text G” / the “Dramatic Text” of the Book of Nut ; see Henri Frankfort, The Cenotaph of Seti I at A (...)
• 51 Nils Billing, Nut: The Goddess of Life in Text and Iconography, Uppsala, Uppsala University Press ( (...)

24 Some of these uses overlap with aetiologies, as in the Cow-Book ’s explanation of the nightly presence of the moon in the sky. A good example is the short mythical story accompanying the Nut picture attested in the cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos, 50 which explains the cyclical disappearance and heliacal rising of the decanal stars by making them into children of Nut and Geb, born and swallowed again every day by their mother, who is referred to accordingly as a “sow”. 51 Geb quarrels with Nut, complaining that she keeps devouring their offspring, but is reassured by Shu that his children, the stars, will be reborn cyclically:

52 Translation after A. von Lieven, Grundriss des Laufes der Sterne , p. 81; O. Neugebauer and R. A. Pa (...) “ She will give birth to them and they will live, and will go out from the place under her behind in the East each day, just as she (habitually) bears Re every day. Her name is not pronounced as ‘mother of the gods’until she gives birth (again).” 52

• 53 A. von Lieven, Grundriss   des Laufes der Sterne , p. 293‑294. The sections dealing with lunar mytholo (...)

25 Other, damaged sections of the text concern the genesis and behaviour of the moon and planets, exploiting the structure of myths surrounding Horus and Seth. 53

• 54 The generally accepted interpretation, summarized by Alan H. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar: Being an i (...)

26 Many sources attest the progressive reassembly of the Eye of Horus that had been torn apart by Seth – the mythical object par excellence – signifying the perpetual waxing and waning of the moon, but beyond astronomical interpretations, the Eye came to represent mathematical fractions of measures no later than the New Kingdom ( Fig.   4 ). 54

Fig. 4. Wedjat-eye fractions as presented by Alan H. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar: being an introduction to the study of hieroglyphs , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1927, p. 197.

• 55 Evidence from the “Records Office” at Amarna, where cuneiform texts were composed, stored, and plau (...)
• 56 Evidence collected in Raffaella Cribiore, Writing, Teachers, and Students in Graeco-Roman Egypt , At (...)
• 57 They represent a category of beings following terms for sky, water, and earth and preceding spirits (...)

58 O. Michigan I, 656, inv. 4609, 3 rd century CE; Trismegistos database 64004.

27 A conspicuous gap is in evidence for the use of myth in school education. Whereas the Mesopotamian scribal curriculum employed myths abundantly, even in the teaching of cuneiform to Egyptian scribes at Amarna, 55 and students in Graeco-Roman Egypt learned about Homeric and other Greek myths and epic heroes at all educational levels, 56 any use of Egyptian myth in such contexts remains elusive. There is indirect evidence for learning about gods in education, as shown by texts such as the perhaps late Ramesside Onomasticon of Amenemope , “Scribe of God’s Books in the House of Life” – the official scriptorium and library. This self-titled “Instruction … to guide the ignorant to know all that exists” ( rḫ wnnt nbt ) is a tabular list of nouns that includes the generic terms nṯr “god” and nṯrt “goddess”, 57 but no individual deities or myths. A Graeco-Roman Period text in Greek, likely a teacher’s model, contains a list of Egyptian and Greek gods intermingled, reading: “Of Isis, of Sarapis, of Hermes, of Harpokrates, of Apis, of Mestasytmis (Egyptian msḏr sḏm ), of Anubis”, where Hermes may signify the moon/Thoth here) 58 and thus attests to Egyptian-Greek syncretism. While most of the deities listed belong to the Osiris cycle, they cannot be used by themselves to infer school education through myths.

• 59 For tables and figures, see Ursula Verhoeven, “The New Kingdom Graffiti in Tomb N13.1: An overview” (...)

28 For pharaonic Egypt, there is to date no evidence for the use of narrative myth as part of scribal education in places such as Deir el-Medina. Similarly, the walls of Tomb N13.1 at Asyut, which is credibly identified as a New Kingdom place of instruction, are covered in school-texts that are otherwise known to have featured in scribal education but do not include a single myth. 59

V/ Literary uses

• 60 Antonio Loprieno, “Defining Egyptian Literature: Ancient texts and modern theory”, in: Antonio Lopr (...)
• 61 For a critical summary of approaches and criteria: Joachim F. Quack, “Irrungen, Wirrungen? Forscher (...)
• 62 P. Cairo CG 58040: Richard Parkinson, Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A dark side to pe (...)
• 63 On P. Berlin 3024, dated to the later 12 th dynasty by R. Parkinson, Poetry and Culture in Middle Ki (...)
• 64 R. Parkinson, The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems, p. 287‑288; id ., Poetry and Cult (...)
• 65 Translations e.g. Miriam Lichtheim , Ancient Egyptian Literature , vol. I. The Old and Middle Kingdom (...)
• 66 John Baines, “Interpreting the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor”, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology  76 (...)
• 67 E.g. Maria Theresia Derchain-Urtel , “ Die Schlange des ‘Schiffbrüchigen’”, Studien zur altägyptische (...)
• 68 See e.g. G. Moers, Fingierte Welten in der ägyptischen Literatur , p. 245‑251, who sets this tale at (...)
• 69 Joachim F. Quack, Studien zu Lehre für Merikare , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Göttinger Orientforschun (...)
• 70 Notably the Myth of the Distant Goddess / Solar Eye , in both Demotic (mss 2 nd century AD) and Greek (...)
• 71 Rainer Hirsch-Luipold, “Religion and Myth”, in: Mark Beck (ed.), A Companion to Plutarch , Hoboken, (...)
• 72 Often termed Astarte and the Insatiable Sea and being an Egyptianized version of the tale, known fr (...)
• 73 See section 2, “Political Uses”, above; similarly Joachim F. Quack , “Erzählen als Preisen: Vom Asta (...)
• 74 E.g. P. Deir el-Medina 39, which seems to narrate the killing of a divine falcon by the god Herishe (...)
• 75 Even the best-attested Demotic myth, the Distant Goddess/Solar Eye , has been suggested to derive fr (...)

29 The absence of myths in evidence for Egyptian schooling may be set in relation to the question of the “literariness” of Egyptian texts, its relatively late development, and the range of genres that it covers. Scholars such as Antonio Loprieno have proposed a set of identifying characteristics for Belles Lettres, primarily fictionality, intertextuality (the mixing of genres and styles within a text), and reception (dissemination and transmission). An intent to entertain is another relevant factor. 60 While some scholars redate several literary “classics” generally considered as Middle-Kingdom to the New Kingdom, a core of them is attested from Dynasty 12, and Middle Egyptian remained the language of literature for many centuries thereafter. 61 Middle Egyptian narrative myths, however, are few, and extant fragments have sometimes been interpreted as forming part of magical or ritual texts, such as the already ancient homosexual episode between Horus and Seth in P. Lahun VI.12, or the Cairo Mythological Tale , 62 which mentions the god Sia “Percipience” and a divine council. The Herdsman’s Tale , which has been the source of much debate and speculation, stems from a collection of literary texts deposited with a burial and is on the same papyrus as the Dialogue of a man and his Ba . 63 It might be counted as a myth since it features a probably Hathoric divine figure, but the protagonist appears to be a human cattle herder, and the story unfolds in the here-and-now; the text also includes a “water spell” attested in a Theban Coffin Text and thus also exhibits intertextuality. 64 The Shipwrecked Sailor 65 encounters a giant speaking serpent deity in a mythical location termed the “Island of the Ka” and identified by scholars as a liminal area between existence and non-existence or life and death, 66 while the deity is most often interpreted as a manifestation of the creator god. 67 The god reports on the life and misfortune of his own clan, but the framing story is an expedition narrative set in the human sphere. 68 Other literary texts, such as the Instruction for Merikare , make use of solar mythical ideas, referring to the sun god’s first creative act of masturbation and to the Destruction of Mankind 69 to underpin their message – in this case the prerogatives and responsibilities of kingship. Thus, while mythical motifs and mythemes occur in Middle Kingdom literary texts, full mythical narratives that did not have a primarily religious context are not attested until the New Kingdom, and most are written in Late Egyptian or Demotic. 70 The only surviving prose narrative of the Osiris myth, by the early 2 nd -century AD priest of Delphic Apollo Plutarch, is in Greek. Its author used the myth, among other things, to support his own views on the essence and multiple manifestations of the divine, 71 which are a based in his background in classical philosophy. Several of the best-attested Late Egyptian mythical narratives display foreign influence, some more clearly – the Battle between Baal and the Sea/Yam  – 72 and others less so, as with the Tale of the Two Brothers (discussed above). For yet others such as the Contendings of Horus and Seth , an originally ritual or performative context is possible. 73 In sum, while texts with mythical content and exhibiting markers of literariness can be identified from no later than the Middle Kingdom, with fragments pointing to the presence of further compositions, 74 it seems clear that fully narrative written myths that can be counted as belonging to Belles Lettres were not prominent in Egyptian traditions and were primarily a phenomenon of the New Kingdom and later periods. 75

VI/ Linguistic and Metaphorical uses

• 76 E.g. Shih-Wei Hsu, Bilder für den Pharao. Untersuchungen zu den bildlichen Ausdrücken des Ägyptisch (...)
• 77 See e.g. Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature , vol. III. The Late Period (2 nd ed.), Berkel (...)
• 78 S.-W. Hsu, Bilder für den Pharao , p. 17‑26 for the use of metaphor versus that of comparative analo (...)
• 79 E.g. P. Berlin 3023, lines 179‑82; cf. Richard Parkinson, The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant: A reade (...)
• 80 Ursula Verhoeven, “Von der ‘Loyalistischen Lehre’ zur ‘Lehre des Kairsu’ – Eine neue Textquelle aus (...)
• 81 On the 12 th dynasty stela of Sehetepibre (Cairo CG 20538, ll. 16‑17) and in New Kingdom manuscripts (...)
• 82 Papyrus Insinger (1 st century CE, text likely Ptolemaic), 9 th instruction (8.18), and other fragmen (...)

30 In view of the intellectual and literary uses of myth, it is logical that mythical referents should also inform metaphorical language. We encountered earlier the presentation of Piye “as Harakhte” on his Victory Stela, which is based in royal solar associations that are attested from the Old Kingdom onwards. 76 In this text Tefnakhte further declares Piye to be “The Ombite (Seth), foremost of the Southland, Montu, the mighty bull”, 77 assimilating the Nubian’s overwhelming power to the strong-men of the Egyptian pantheon. Royal inscriptions, especially of the New Kingdom and later, are a treasure trove for such mythical analogies and conceptual metaphors, 78 and literary texts exploit them as well. Middle Kingdom instances include the ironic invocation of a corrupt official in terms of Thoth in the Eloquent Peasant , which builds on the god’s mythical role as patron of writing and thus of knowledge and wisdom. 79 Even clearer are cases where two mythical referents are set in contrast against each other. Thus, the Loyalist Instruction of Kairsu 80 describes the king as a “Bastet who guards the Two lands” ( Bᴣstt pw ḫw tᴣwy ), who thus also protects his loyal official, but as “Sakhmet to the one who strays from what he has commanded” ( Sḫmt pw r th m wḏt.n.f ). 81 This metaphorical pair draws on the mythical complex of the Distant Goddess, who in her enraged, leonine form must be propitiated in order to turn into a protective, maternal feline. Comparable mythical associations are mobilized fifteen hundred years later in the Demotic Wisdom Book of Papyrus Insinger, which assigns all women to the polar categories of maternal Mut or volatile, promiscuous, and easily enraged Hathor. 82

31 In all these cases, the mythical actors invoked seem to function as emblems or icons of characteristics signified by their mythical associations that are analogous and meaningful for the description and understanding of the present context. The same cognitive processes may underlie the rare occurrences of myths in dreams: in the New Kingdom Dream Book a man may see himself “copulating with a kite”, in a clear evocation of the Osiris myth. The interpretation provided is negative, in line with the mytheme of Osiris, whom Seth tricked out of his birthright:

83 Alan H. Gardiner, Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, third series: Chester Beatty gift , 2 vols, (...) “ Bad, it means that something might be grabbed right out from his hand”. 83

VII/ Mythical space in this-worldly geography, architecture, and cult

• 84 James P. Allen, “Reading a Pyramid”, in: Catherine Berger, Gisèle Clerc, Nicolas Grimal (eds.), Hom (...)
• 85 E.g. Silvia Wiebach-Koepke, Sonnenlauf und kosmische Regeneration: Zur Systematik der Lebensprozess (...)
• 86 Thus, in one example among many, an inscription on the exterior of the Luxor temple designates it a (...)
• 87 Annals of Amenemhat II: Hartwig Altenmüller, Zwei Annalenfragmente aus dem frühen Mittleren Reich , (...)
• 88 See e.g. Dagmar Budde, “Child deities”, in: Jacco Dieleman and Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encycl (...)
• 89 Philippe Derchain, “Réflexions sur la décoration des pylônes”, Bulletin de la Société française d’é (...)
• 90 Attested from the Old Kingdom onwards; see Beatrix Gessler-Löhr , Die heiligen Seen ägyptischer Temp (...)

32 Some architectural forms constitute material realizations of myths. Tombs may embody mythical conceptions of the afterlife, as with pyramidal superstructures evoking solar rebirth from the primeval mound. Subterranean chambers may refer to the daily progression of the sungod through the netherworld ( dwᴣt ) and horizon ( ᴣḫt ), and this interpretation has been extended to contemporaneous mastaba tombs. 84 A similar meaning can be established for New Kingdom royal tombs, whose descending corridors represent the sun god’s descent – here into the Theban escarpment – and his progress through the night, ideas that are also presented in the Underworld Books shown on their walls. 85 The design of temples incorporates mythical ideas, such as the sanctuary as a primeval mound and place where creation took place. 86 First millennium temple complexes included birth-houses (or mammisis, pr-mswt ) that signified the place where the local deity, or the deity’s son, was born and nurtured. These structures, first attested in a 12th dynasty text, 87 were the places of conception and birth of the young, kingly gods who were so prominent in late religion. 88 Temples also possessed “horizons” represented by a pylon or pylons 89 and a sacred lake, the latter being vital for temples of solar Eye-goddesses, where it may signify the red flood in the myth of the Destruction of Mankind . 90

• 91 Ute Rummel, “Der Leib der Göttin: Materialität und Semantik ägyptischer Felslandschaft”, in: Susann (...)
• 92 Probably under Khendjer in the 13th dynasty, a basalt statue of the mummiform god on his bier, impr (...)
• 93 Survey: Marie-Christine Lavier, “Les fêtes d’Osiris à Abydos au Moyen Empire et au Nouvel Empire”, (...)

33 Natural and man-made structures could be interpreted as mythical locations, as with the western escarpment at Thebes, which was both the entrance to the underworld and an embodiment of the goddess of the West, who was variously called Hathor, Imentet, or Meresger, and was also seen as present in a natural rock formation that resembles the image of a colossal cobra. 91 Similarly, the Abydos tomb of the 1 st dynasty king Djer came to be considered the tomb of Osiris no later than during the Middle Kingdom, 92 becoming the destination of the annual “Mysteries of Osiris”, in which the god’s death, burial, and rebirth were enacted in an ultimately mythical landscape. 93

• 94 See e.g. Arne Egberts, “Mythos und Fest. Überlegungen zur Dekoration der westlichen Innenseite der (...)
• 95 See Felix Arnold, “Pharaonische Prozessionsstraßen. Mittel der Machtdarstellung unter Königin Hatsc (...)
• 96 A survey focusing on late evidence: Joachim F. Quack, “Lokalressourcen oder Zentraltheologie? Zur R (...)

34 During festivals, different sectors of such landscapes were connected in ritual processions, with statues of gods visiting one another, in part re-enacting mythical episodes. 94 Examples include the Osiris mysteries at Abydos, where the re-enactment of his death and resurrection drew thousands of participants, the so-called “sacred marriage” of Horus of Edfu and Hathor of Dendara, the visit to the primeval deities of Edfu/Behdet, and the celebration of the return of the “distant goddess” to Egypt at Philae. 95 Here as in many contexts, local traditions and geography played a significant role; 96 while comparable rituals in the delta are altogether less well attested, they are likely to have been equally important.

• 97 For conceptions and uses of landscape, see J. Baines, High Culture and Experience in Ancient Egypt , (...)
• 98 Maria Costanza Centrone, Egyptian Corn-Mummies: A class of religious artefacts catalogued and syste (...)
• 99 E.g. Silvia Wiebach-Koepke, Sonnenlauf und kosmische Regeneration: zur Systematik der Lebensprozess (...)
• 100 Horst Beinlich, Die “Osirisreliquien”: Zum Motiv der Körperzergliederung in der altägyptischen Reli (...)

35 Temples, details of their cults, and late compositions such as the Book of the Fayyum show how regions of the land were understood as mythical landscapes. 97 When the resurrection of Osiris is associated with the cycle of inundation and of the growth and death of vegetation, as represented among other ways in Osirian corn-mummies ( Fig.   5 ), 98 Egypt as a whole emerges as a topographical and agricultural manifestation of the reassembled god. The solar and Osirian complexes merge in this mytheme, which is based in the idea of the sun as a life-giving force fertilizing the earth and illustrated in the fusion of Re and Osiris in the depths of the night as well as in object types such as the Corn-Osiris. 99 By the Late Period, Osiris’ scattered body parts were believed to be distributed over many nomes. Particularly important body parts were housed in the god’s chief cult centres, with his head resting at Abydos. 100

Fig. 5. The evening sun fertilizes Osiris with its rays.

Back of the mummy board of the coffin set of Nespawershefit. 21 st  dynasty.

Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum E.1.1822. Courtesy of Museum.

VIII/ Visual usages that iconize mythemes

• 101 See e.g. Erik Hornung, “Die Tragweite der Bilder: Altägyptische Bildaussagen”, Eranos-Jahrbuch 48, (...)
• 102 Divine Birth: see section 2 with n. 28; Edfu: e.g. Arno Egberts, “The Chronology of the Horus Myth (...)

36 Single images and iconographically distinctive figures can evoke mythemes. Groupings of figures and actions can do more and can bring together different cosmic domains, in particular to depict cyclical processes or fundamental change. Such possibilities were only rarely exploited in the decoration of temples or nonroyal tombs, but they are pervasive in contexts of transition, magic, and the underworld. Myths were probably represented pictorially at least from late prehistory, which we do not study in this article, to the end of Egyptian civilization; they are especially well documented from the New Kingdom onward. It is seldom possible to enforce a sequential viewing of images, and in the Egyptian case this lack of constraint means that they fit with the low prestige of canonized, written mythical narrative and the prevalence of mythemes over whole myths. 101 Large compositions with many tableaux, such as the “underworld books”, are an exception, and organized as something like a visual narrative; also the Myth of the Divine Birth and the Ptolemaic Horus Myth of Edfu are presented in a sequence of partly pictorial scenes. 102

• 103 E.g. Heinrich Schäfer, “Die Ausdeutung der Spiegelplatte als Sonnenscheibe”, Zeitschrift für ägypti (...)
• 104 Cairo CG 14. See e.g. Mohmed Saleh and Hourig Sourouzian, The Egyptian Museum, Cairo: Official Cata (...)
• 105 Michael Berger, “The Petroglyphs at Locality 61”, in: Michael Allen Hoffman, The Predynastic of Hie (...)
• 106 See e.g. Geoffrey Killen, Ancient Egyptian Furniture: 4000‑1300 BC / boxes, chests and footstools , (...)
• 107 Early Old Kingdom bovine furniture legs: Alexander Wenzel, Die Formen der altägyptischen Liege und (...)

37 We can only discuss a few examples of mythical references in images. Furniture and elite personal objects from tombs, many of which may have been used during life, display many relevant motifs. Hathoric designs and symbolism abound on cosmetic items such as vessels and mirrors, including ones belonging to royal women ( Fig.   6 ). The viewing disc of mirrors has a distinctive flattened elliptical shape, which is that of the dawn and evening sun, so that its use invoked the goddess’s vivifying role as daughter of the sungod at points of transition and crisis. 103 Much early furniture had bovid legs that exemplify difficulties in interpretation. Royal thrones, such as that of the famous statue of Khephren, 104 may be compared with the bull of the sky attested in late prehistoric imagery and mentioned in the Pyramid Texts . 105 Other examples may perhaps evoke the celestial cow; these were later replaced with leonine forms that have potential solar significance. Beds and stools commonly bore figures of Bes ( Fig.   7 ) and Taweret, respectively as protective forms of the sungod and his solar eye. 106 All these associations are explicit in the funerary biers found in the tomb of Tutankhamun, where a hippopotamus form occurs beside a bovine and leonine example. Cow, lioness, and hippopotamus are united in some compound images of Taweret, who has been argued to be a personification of the bier. Her mythical role is to bear up the sungod, together with the deceased, who is likened to him. 107 Headrests for sleeping and funerary purposes could also evoke mythemes of the sunrise, as illustrated by a headrest from the tomb of Tutankhamun, which shows the god of light and air, Shu, between the pair of lions of the horizon, Ruty or Aker, bearing up the head of the sleeper or the deceased as in myth he would the sky-goddess and sungod ( Fig.   8 ).

Fig. 6. Hathoric mirror of one of the Syrian wives of Thutmose III.

Purchased in Luxor. Height 33.4 cm. Disk: silver; handle: wood (modern) sheathed in gold; inlays restored.

New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 26.8.98. Courtesy of Museum.

Fig. 7. Hatnefer’s chair, with frontal Bes image and leonine legs.

Height 53 cm. Boxwood, cypress, ebony, linen cord. From her tomb at Sheikh Abd el-Qurna. Reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III.

New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 36.3.152. Rogers Fund, 1936. Courtesy of Museum.

Fig. 8. Tinted ivory head-rest from the tomb of Tutankhamun.

Height 17.5 cm, width 29 cm. Excavator’s no. 403c, Cairo JE 62020.

Photo by Harry Burton (P1236), reproduced with permission of Griffith Institute, University of Oxford.

• 108 E.g. Cyril Aldred, Jewels of the Pharaohs: Egyptian Jewellery of the Dynastic Period , London, Thame (...)
• 109 See Carol Andrews,  Amulets of Ancient Egypt , London, British Museum Press, 1994, e.g. p. 16, 22, 23 (...)

110 See J. P. Allen, The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt , no. 52, p. 49‑63.

38 The most widespread, often elaborate, use of mythical icons is on amulets and jewellery found in funerary contexts; these motifs are comparable with ones known in images of funerary scenes and of “daily life”. The pervasive amulet of the Wedjat-eye (see Fig.   4 for its mathematical significance), for example, evokes the mythical fight between Horus and Seth, in which Horus’s eye was lost but retrieved and Horus was vindicated as heir to his father’s throne, as well as the analogy of this mytheme with the cyclical absences of cosmic bodies, notably the waning and subsequently waxing moon. 108 Amulets depicting individual deities and groupings of them may be iconized mythemes relating to specific mythical episodes. Vast numbers of artefacts show the morning sun, Khepri, in the form of a dung-beetle pushing the solar disc up, bearing iconic testament to the myth of the sungod’s birth and journey across the sky and highlighting the importance of the first solar phase as a moment of regeneration. From the New Kingdom onward, amulets showing Isis suckling Horus, Horus as child, or Hathor in cow-form were common. From the Late Period, amulets of Seth as a hippopotamus being speared by Horus, or of the triad of Isis and Nephthys flanking Horus, can be found, 109 at a time when there was a vast increase in protective objects ranging up to large stelae dedicated in the name of kings, of which the 4 th -century BC Metternich stela offers a prime example ( Fig.   9 ). 110 From miniature to large scales and across many contexts, the mythical icons would have assimilated the user or wearer into a mythical context, affording to them the powers, characteristics or benefits that the mythical actors were believed to possess.

Fig. 9. The Metternich stela, with magical images and texts on both sides: central scene.

Dedicated in the name of Nectanebo I, ca. 380 BC. Siltstone. Height 83.5 cm.

New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 50.85. Courtesy of Museum.

• 111 For these interpretations, see chapters 33‑38 (J. G. Griffiths, Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride , p.  (...)

39 Egyptian myth was a means of conceptualizing and describing the world as well as of explaining and controlling it. In line with these functions, it was flexible and could be adapted to many contexts. This fact is acknowledged explicitly by Plutarch, who reports interpretations that Egyptian myths and gods provoked among both indigenous people and Hellenistic visitors from the Graeco-Roman world. Thus, he describes how some Egyptians regard the Osiris myth as relating to the Nile flood, with Osiris representing all kinds of moisture and fresh water while Seth(-Typhon) stands for either dryness or the salt water of the sea. Others relate the myth to the phases of the moon, with Seth standing for the sun’s destructive power, and yet others to lunar eclipses. Further groups believe Osiris to be the sun and Isis the moon, yet “boring people” associate the activities of these gods with seasonal change or the growth, sowing and ploughing of crops. 111

• 112 See e.g. Reinhold Merkelbach , Isis Regina –   Zeus Serapis. Die griechisch-ägyptische Religion nach d (...)
• 113 Synesius of Cyrene: Martin Hose (ed.), Ägyptische Erzählungen oder Über die Vorsehung , Tübingen, Mo (...)

40 Meanings and configurations of Egyptian religion and its myths spread to other cultures, for example with the Isis cult in the Graeco-Roman world, 112 while myths from outside were incorporated into the Egyptian repertory. Egyptian and other forms were thus broadly intelligible and relevant in non-culture-specific ways. A striking late example is Synesios of Cyrene’s early 5 th -century AD adaptation of the Osiris myth to represent structures and events in the Byzantine court of Constantinople. 113 With the exceptions of the employment of myth in school education and the relatively late emergence of narrative myth as a written literary genre, the uses and functions we have outlined for Egypt are comparable with what is known from many cultures. An approach based on function may thus contribute to a wider understanding of the essence of myth.

• 114 In the sense of Philippe Derchain, “Perpetuum mobile”, Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica 6/7, 1976, (...)

41 From an Egyptian viewpoint, however, the wide-ranging manifestations of myth may be most accessible if they are viewed as flowing from the foundational idea that the creator fashioned the many aspects of the world out of himself, in a pattern that is recurrent – daily, annually, and rising globally up to the perpetual cycle of nḥḥ  – and yet evolves in linear fashion ( ḏt ), 114 as well as entailing continued interaction among the created elements. Thus, a single, canonical version of Egyptian myths cannot be distilled: for as long as the world evolves, myths will be created or adapted to describe it.

1 Synesios of Cyrene: Martin Hose (ed.), Ägyptische Erzählungen oder Über die Vorsehung , Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2012, p. 41; written c. 400 CE.

2 Katja Goebs, “A Functional Approach to Egyptian Myth and Mythemes”, Journal of Near Eastern Religions 2, 2002, p. 27‑59, esp. p. 42ff.

3 The current term, deriving from the structuralism of Claude Lévi-Strauss, who defined them as “gross constituent units”: “The Structural Study of Myth”, Journal of American Folklore 68, 1955, p. 428‑444 .

4 Heike Sternberg el-Hotabi, Mythische Motive und Mythenbildung in den ägyptischen Tempeln der griechischen Zeit , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Göttinger Orientforschungen”, IV/14), 1985.

5 Siegfried Schott, Mythe und Mythenbildung im alten Ägypten , Leipzig, J. C. Hinrichs’sche Buchhandlung (“Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Aegyptens”, 15), 1945: “mythische Aussagen”; “mythische Anspielungen”.

6 Jan Assmann, “Die Verborgenheit des Mythos in Ägypten”, Göttinger Miszellen 25, 1977, p. 7‑43, and several later publications.

7 Jan Assmann, “Die Zeugung des Sohnes. Bild, Spiel, Erzählung, und das Problem des ägyptischen Mythos”, in: Jan Assmann, Walter Burkert and Fritz Stolz (eds.), Funktionen und Leistungen des Mythos. Drei altorientalische Beispiele , Friburg and Göttingen, Universitätsverlag and Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (“Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis”, 48), 1982, p. 13‑61, e.g. p. 40‑41.

8 Vladimir Propp, Morphology of the Folktale 2 (trans. from the 1928 Russian by L. Scott), Austin, University of Texas Press, 1968; see K. Goebs, “A Functional Approach to Egyptian Myth and Mythemes”, p. 42‑44, for reception in Egyptology.

9 Walter Burkert, e.g. “The Organization of Myth”, in: id ., Structure and History in Greek Mythology and Ritual , Berkeley, University of California Press, 1979, p. 5‑6.

10 Eugene Dorfman, The Narreme in the Medieval Romance Epic. An introduction to narrative structures , Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1969.

11 See e.g. Michael S. Gazzaniga, “Organization of the Human Brain”, Science 245(4921), 1989, p. 947‑952; id ., Who’s in Charge? Free will and the science of the brain , New York, Harper Collins, 2011, esp. p. 75ff. For a first application of this insight to Egyptian myth see Katja Goebs, “Egyptian  Mythos as Logos : Attempt at a redefinition of ‘mythical thinking’” in: Elizabeth Frood and Angela McDonald (eds.), Decorum and Experience: Essays in Ancient Culture for John Baines , Oxford, Griffith Institute, 2013, p. 127‑134.

12 See already John Baines, “Egyptian Myth and Discourse: myth, gods, and the early written and iconographic record”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 50, 1991, p. 81‑105.

13 See e.g. Saphinaz A. Naguib,“‘Fille du dieu’, ‘épouse du dieu’, ‘mère du dieu’ ou la métaphore féminine”, in: Ulrich Luft (ed.), The Intellectual Heritage of Egypt: Studies presented to László Kákosy by friends and colleagues on the occasion of his 60 th birthday , Budapest, Chaire d’égyptologie de l’Université Loránd Eötvös, 1992, p. 437‑447; René Preys, “Les manifestations d’Hathor: protection, alimentation, et illumination divines”, Studien zur altägyptischen Kultur 34, 2007, p. 353‑375.

14 See Rolf Krauss, Astronomische Konzepte und Jenseitsvorstellungen in den Pyramidentexten , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Ägyptologische Abhandlungen”, 59), 1997, p. 146‑204.

15 For summaries of theories: Mark Smith, Following Osiris. Perspectives on the Osirian Afterlife from four Millennia , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017. On royal aspects of Osiris see e.g. Katja Goebs, “How ‘Royal’ (and how ‘Mythical’) are the Coffin Texts? Reflections on the definition, function, and relativity of some etic concepts in a Middle Kingdom funerary text corpus”, in: Rune Nyord (ed.), Concepts in Middle Kingdom Funerary Culture , (in press); on local variation in conceptions of Osiris, see Lucía Díaz-Iglesias Llanos, Naref and Osiris Naref: A study in Herakleopolitan religious traditions , Berlin-Boston, De Gruyter (“Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde Beihefte”, 3), 2017.

16 Hymn to Osiris, enumerating cult centres, roles, and manifestations including Orion, bringer of vegetation, and legitimate king, followed by the myth’s major episodes (Louvre stela C286; see e.g. Miriam Lichtheim , Ancient Egyptian Literature , vol. II. The New Kingdom (2nd ed.), Berkeley, University of California Press, 2006, p. 81‑86. Litany of Re : Erik Hornung, Das Buch der Anbetung des Re im Westen (Sonnenlitanei): Nach den Versionen des Neuen Reiches , 2 vols, Geneva, Éditions des Belles-Lettres (“Aegyptiaca helvetica”), 1975.

17 Andreas Pries, Die Stundenwachen im Osiriskult: Eine Studie zur Tradition und späten Rezeption von Ritualen im Alten Ägypten , 2 vols, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Studien zur Spätägyptischen Religion”, 2), 2011.

18 See in general Mark S. Smith,  God in Translation: Deities in cross-cultural discourse in the biblical world , Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck (“Forschungen zum Alten Testament”, 57), 2008; for Egypt, see Alexandra von Lieven, “Translating Gods, Interpreting Gods. On the mechanisms behind the interpretatio graeca of Egyptian gods”, in: Ian Rutherford (ed.), Graeco-Egyptian Interactions. Literature, Translation, and Culture, 500 BC-AD 300 , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2016, p. 61‑82.

19 See Keiko Tazawa, Syro-Palestinian Deities in New Kingdom Egypt: The hermeneutics of their existence , Oxford, Archaeopress (“British Archaeological Reports International Series”, 1965), 2009; Christiane Zivie-Coche, “Foreign Deities in Egypt”, in: Jacco Dieleman, Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology , 2011, ( http://escholarship.org/uc/item/7tr1814c ); also Océane Henri, “Plusieurs personnes sous un seul masque: l’ interpretatio d’Artémis en Égypte”, in: Frédéric Colin, et al . (eds.), Interpretatio: traduire l’altérité culturelle dans les civilisations de l’Antiquité , Paris, de Boccard (“Études d’archéologie et d’histoire ancienne”, 25), 2015, p. 123‑145.

20 Examples in Dimitri Meeks, Mythes et légendes du delta d’après le Papyrus Brooklyn 47.218.84 , Cairo, Institut français d’archéologie orientale (“Mémoires publiés par les membres de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale”, 125), 2006; see e.g. p. 14‑15: explanation of the cyclical absence of the moon, due to the Eye of Re being swallowed by a pig, and of its reappearance when Thoth placed it back in the horizon; p. 17, §18: Origin of green unguent from the iris of the Wedjat Eye when Nefertem placed it at his forehead. See also below, (4) Intellectual Uses.

21 Erik Hornung, Der ägyptische Mythos von der Himmelskuh: Eine Ätiologie des Unvollkommenen , 2 nd  ed., Friburg and Göttingen, Universitätsverlag and Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (“Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis”, 46), 1991.

22 See e.g. Betsy M. Bryan , “ Hatshepsut and Cultic Revelries in the New Kingdom”, in: José M. Galán, Betsy M. Bryan, Peter F. Dorman (eds.), Creativity and Innovation in the Reign of Hatshepsut , Chicago, Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (“Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations”, 69), 2014, p. 103‑106, for the “Hall / Porch of Drunkenness” in the Mut temple at Karnak; Heike Sternberg-El Hotabi, Ein Hymnus an die Göttin Hathor und das Ritual ‘Hathor das Trankopfer darbringen’ nach den Tempeltexten der griechisch-römischen Zeit , Turnhout, Brepols (“Rites égyptiens”, 7), 1992.

23 Translations based on E. Hornung, Der ägyptische Mythos von der Himmelskuh : A: p. 9, 40, 58 with nn. 67, 70, verses 92‑95; B: verses 97‑99 (B); C: p. 23‑24, 45, verses 244‑245.

24 Wolfgang Wettengel, Die Erzählung von den beiden Brüdern. Der Papyrus d’Orbiney und die Königsideologie der Ramessiden , Friburg and Göttingen, Universitätsverlag and Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (“Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis”, 195), 2003, e.g. p. 241.

25 See Paula Philippson, Genealogie als mythische Form. Studien zur Theogonie des Hesiod , Oslo, Brøgger (“Symbolae Osloenses Fasc. Supplet.”, 7), 1936.

27 Lines 75‑76; see e.g. Robert K. Ritner, The Libyan Anarchy. Inscriptions from Egypt’s Third Intermediate Period, Atlanta, Society for Biblical Literature, 2009, p. 466, 472, 483, with references.

28 Hellmut Brunner , Die Geburt des Gottkönigs: Studien zur Überlieferung eines altägyptischen Mythos 2 , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Ägyptologische Abhandlungen”, 10), 1991, pl. 14 for the transfer of kingship by Amun-Re.

29 Mohamed Megahed and Hana Vymazalová, “Ancient Egyptian Royal Circumcision from the Pyramid Complex of Djedkare?”, Anthropologie 49, 2011, p. 155‑164; 12 th dynasty: Adela Oppenheim, “The Early Life of Pharaoh: Divine birth and adolescence scenes in the causeway of Senwosret III at Dahshur”, in: Miroslav Bárta et al. (eds.), Abusir & Saqqara in the Year 2010: Prague May 31st to June 4th 2010 I, Prague, Czech Institute of Egyptology Charles University, 2011, p. 171‑188.

31 On the dynasty of gods, and its transmutations in later copies, see E. Hornung, Der ägyptische Mythos von der Himmelskuh , p. 88‑90; Donald B. Redford, Pharaonic King Lists, Annals, and Day-books: A contribution to the study of the Egyptian sense of history , Mississauga (Ont.), Benben (“Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities Publication”, 4), 1986, p. 231‑234. The Turin list appears to have space for at least three more divine names before Geb, and it too could have begun with Ptah, in line with the new importance of the Memphite creator in the aftermath of the Amarna Period (cf. E. Hornung, Der ägyptische Mythos von der Himmelskuh , p. 89).

32 Cassius Dio, LIX, 28, 2‑6, and Egyptian parallels: Hans Peter L’Orange , “Das Geburtsritual der Pharaonen am römischen Kaiserhof”, Symbolae Osloenses 21, 1941, p. 105‑116; see also Erich Winter, “Octavian/Augustus als Soter, Euergetes und Epiphanes: Die Datierung des Kalabscha-Tores”, Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 130, 2003, p. 207, who cites an ode of Horace (III, 5) in which Augustus is presented as a terrestrial equivalent to celestial Jupiter.

33 Ursula Verhoeven , “ Ein historischer ‘Sitz im Leben’ für die Erzählung von Horus und Seth des Papyrus Chester Beatty I”, in: Mechthild Schade-Busch (ed.), Wege öffnen. Festschrift für Rolf Gundlach zum 65. Geburtstag , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Ägypten und Altes Testament” 35), 1996, p. 347‑363. Jean Revez points out that the title sn njswt , “King’s Brother” is not attested before the 25 th dynasty, when fratrilineal succession became common: “The Role of the Kings’ Brothers in the Transmission of Royal Power in ancient Egypt and Kush: A cross-cultural study”, in: Julie R. Anderson and Derek A. Welsby (eds.), The Fourth Cataract and Beyond: Proceedings of the 12 th international conference for Nubian Studies , Leuven, Peeters, 2014, p. 538.

34 Michèle Broze argues for legitimizing Ramesses IV: Mythe et roman en Égypte ancienne. Les aventures d’Horus et Seth dans le Papyrus Chester Beatty I, Leuven, Peeters (“Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta”, 76), 1996, p. 10, 269‑275, 281.

35 W . Wettengel , Die Erzählung von den beiden Brüdern , esp. p. 250‑263, who also notes the myth’s significance in evoking the agricultural seasons and combining solar and Osirian aspects (p. 216‑218); for a different interpretation: Thomas Schneider , “ Innovation in Literature on Behalf of Politics: The Tale of the Two Brothers, Ugarit, and 19 th dynasty history”, Ägypten und Levante 18, 2008, p. 315‑326.

36 Detlef Franke, Das Heiligtum des Heqaib auf Elephantine: Geschichte eines Provinzheiligtums im Mittleren Reich , Heidelberg, Heidelberger Orientverlag (“Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens”, 9), 1994, p. 69‑70. For the text, see e.g. Richard Parkinson, The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems, 1940–1640 BC , Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997, p. 116‑120. On this unusual succession see also J. Revez, “The Role of the Kings’ Brothers in the Transmission of Royal Power”, p. 538‑540, who demonstrates that all three kings avoided the title sn njswt , “King’s Brother” and rather presented themselves as sᴣ njswt , “King’s Son” in line with the expected Osirian and Horian mythical precedent, even though their own father had only borne the priestly title “God’s Father” ( jtj nṯr ).

37 Amr El-Hawary , Wortschöpfung. Die Memphitische Theologie und die Siegesstele des Pije –   Zwei Zeugen kultureller Repräsentation in der 25. Dynastie , Friburg and Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (“Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis”, 243), 2010, e.g. p. 206‑207. The revised order of Shebitqu before Shabaka fits with this argument and with evidence relating to the succession of Taharqa; see Claus Jurman, “The Order of the Kushite Kings according to Sources from the Eastern Desert and Thebes. Or:  Shabataka was here first! ”,  Journal of Egyptian History  10/2, 2017, p. 124‑151. References to the same pattern of distribution between Seth and Horus are found in the Saite P. Brooklyn 47.218.84 XII, 2‑4, where they are located in Lower Egyptian Hermopolis, with Thoth appearing as the great judge and vizier: D. Meeks, Mythes et légendes du delta , p. 26, 266‑267.

38 Thomas Schneider, “Mythos und Zeitgeschichte in der 30. Dynastie. Eine politische Lektüre des ‘Mythos von den Götterkönigen’”, in: Andreas Brodbeck (ed.), Ein ägyptisches Glasperlenspiel: Ägyptologische Beiträge für Erik Hornung aus seinem Schülerkreis , Berlin, Mann, 1998, p. 207‑242.

39 Jean Revez, “Looking at History through the Prism of Mythology: Can the Osirian myth shed any light on ancient Egyptian royal succession patterns?”,  Journal of Egyptian History  3/1, 2010, p. 60‑66.

40 E.g. Eckhard Frahm, “Counter-texts, Commentaries, and Adaptations: Politically motivated responses to the Babylonian Epic of Creation in Mesopotamia, the Biblical World, and elsewhere”, Orient 45 (special issue: Akio Tsukimoto (ed.), Conflict, Peace and Religion in the Ancient Near East ), Tokyo, 2010, p. 3‑33; for a classic study on Greece: Martin P. Nilsson, Cults, Myths, Oracles and Politics in Ancient Greece; with two appendices: the Ionian phylae, the phratries (2nd ed.), Göteborg, Paul Aström, 1986.

41 Thomas Schneider , “ Die Waffe der Analogie. Altägyptische Magie als System”, in: Manuel Bachmann and Karen Gloy (eds.), Das Analogiedenken. Vorstöße in ein neues Gebiet der Rationalitätstheorie , Friburg-Munich, Karl Alber, 2000, p. 37‑85; Joris F. Borghouts , Ancient Egyptian Magical Texts , Leiden, Brill (“Religious Texts Translation Series NISABA”, 9), 1978, p. ix-x, who speaks of “mythologizing” the spells, while Robert K. Ritner, The Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice , Chicago, Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (“Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations”, 54), 1993, p. 76 with n. 338, terms such passages historiolas (compare David Frankfurter , “ Narrating Power: The theory and practice of the magical historiola in ritual spells”, in: Marvin Meyer and Paul Mirecki (eds.), Ancient Magic and Ritual Power , Leiden: Brill, 1995, p. 457‑476).

42 Papyri Berlin 3053, 3014, 3055; see Nadja S. Braun, Pharao und Priester –   Sakrale Affirmation von Herrschaft durch Kultvollzug. Das tägliche Kultbildritual im Neuen Reich und in der Dritten Zwischenzeit , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Philippika”, 23), 2013; Katherine Eaton , Ancient Egyptian Temple Ritual: Performance, pattern, and practice , New York, Routledge (“Routledge Studies in Egyptology”, 1), 2013; Katja Goebs, “King as God and God as King”, in: Rolf Gundlach and Kate Spence (eds.), Palace and Temple: Architecture –   decoration   – ritual . Cambridge, July, 16th-17th, 2007. 5. Symposium zur ägyptischen Königsideologie , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 2011, p. 57‑101.

43 K. Goebs, “A Functional Approach to Egyptian Myth and Mythemes”, esp. p. 51‑54 for solar myths; for Thoth see Martin A. Stadler, Weiser und Wesir. Studien zu Vorkommen, Rolle und Wesen des Gottes Thot im Ägyptischen Totenbuch , Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck (“Orientalische Religionen in der Antike”, 1), 2009, p. 129‑134, 335‑343.

44 For example, a spell in P. Ebers for removing a bandage (1,12‑2,1) refers both to Horus having been “released” from the evil done to him by Seth, and to Re being reborn from the primeval waters: Jacobus van Dijk, “The Birth of Horus according to the Ebers Papyrus”, Jaarbericht van het vooraziat.-egyptisch Genootschap, Ex Oriente Lux 26, 1980, p. 10‑25. Other examples: Naoko Yamazaki , Zaubersprüche für Mutter und Kind. Papyrus Berlin 302 , Achet B2, Berlin, Norbert Dürring, 2003, p. 5 with n. 5.

45 See J. F. Borghouts, Ancient Egyptian Magical Texts , p. 51‑55 (no. 84); R. K. Ritner, The Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice , p. 76, 95‑96; Pascal Vernus, “Isis et les scorpions: le frémissement du littéraire sous le fatras magique”, in: Jean-Pierre Montesino (ed.), De Cybèle à Isis , Paris, Cybèle, 2011, p. 27‑37.

46 Translation after Borghouts.

47 E.g. the 30 th dynasty Metternich Stela: James P. Allen, The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt , New York- New Haven-London, Metropolitan Museum of Art and Yale University Press, 2005, p. 49‑63, with refs.

48 Heike Sternberg-El Hotabi, Zur Überlieferungsgeschichte der Horusstelen: Ein Beitrag zur Religionsgeschichte Ägyptens im I. Jahrtausend v. Chr ., Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Ägyptologische Abhandlungen”, 62), 1999.

49 See also Otto Neugebauer and Richard A. Parker, Egyptian Astronomical Texts , vol. III, Decans, planets, constellations and zodiacs , Providence (RI), Brown University Press (“Brown Egyptological Studies”, 3), 1969, p. 153‑156, 175‑182, e.g. pl. 3; for the Graeco-Roman Period see Gyula Priskin, “The Dendera Zodiacs as Narratives of the Myth of Osiris, Isis, and the Child Horus”, Égypte nilotique et méditerranéenne 8, 2015, p. 133‑185.

50 “ Text G” / the “Dramatic Text” of the Book of Nut ; see Henri Frankfort, The Cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos , London, Egypt Exploration Society (“Memoirs of the Egypt Exploration Society” , 39), 1933, pl. lxxxi; attested also in other late New Kingdom and Late Period funerary structures, and in a double, Hieratic and Demotic, version and commentary, in Papyrus Carlsberg 1 (2nd century AD); Alexandra von Lieven, The Carlsberg Papyri, vol. VIII.  Grundriss   des Laufes der Sterne. Das sogenannte Nutbuch , 2 vols, Copenhagen, Museum Tusculanum Forlag (“CNI Publications”, 31), 2007, edition with parallels; O. Neugebauer and R. A. Parker,  Egyptian Astronomical Texts , vol. I, The Early Decans , Providence (RI), Brown University Press (“Brown Egyptological Studies”, 3), 1960, p. 67‑80, pls 51‑54.

51 Nils Billing, Nut: The Goddess of Life in Text and Iconography, Uppsala, Uppsala University Press (“Uppsala Studies in Egyptology”, 5), 2002, p. 18‑21; for a rare representation of this divine form see Alison Roberts, My Heart my Mother: Death and Rebirth in Ancient Egypt , Rottingdean, NorthGate, 2000, p. 103 with fig. 80. Geb can be termed a “pig” by association with his consort’s sow form: D. Meeks, Mythes et légendes du delta , p. 82 n. 192, with earlier literature.

52 Translation after A. von Lieven, Grundriss des Laufes der Sterne , p. 81; O. Neugebauer and R. A. Parker Egyptian Astronomical Texts I, p. 77, pl. 52; p. 54.

53 A. von Lieven, Grundriss   des Laufes der Sterne , p. 293‑294. The sections dealing with lunar mythology are absent from P. Carlsberg 1 (ibid., p. 9‑10), but elements occur in the Late Period collection of myths from the Delta in P. Brooklyn 47.218.84 §13: D. Meeks, Mythes et légendes du delta . Planetary phenomena are explored mythically in P. Carlsberg 228 and other fragments: Alexandra von Lieven, Grundriss   des Laufes der Sterne , p. 12, 190‑203.

54 The generally accepted interpretation, summarized by Alan H. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar: Being an introduction to the study of hieroglyphs , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1927, p. 197‑199, has been attacked by James Ritter, “Closing the Eye of Horus: the rise and fall of ‘Horus-eye Fractions’”, in: John M. Steele and Annette Imhausen (eds.), Under One Sky: Astronomy and mathematics in the Ancient Near East , Münster, Ugarit-Verlag, 2002, p. 297‑323, who traces the hieratic and hieroglyphic fraction signs and concludes that the association with the Eye of Horus is no earlier than the New Kingdom. Yet such a system might at least partly explain the complicated way in which calculations are represented, with fractions shown as sums of certain basic fractions rather than compounded ones, e.g. 11/15 as 2/3 (+) 1/15 (see e.g. Annette Imhausen, Mathematics in Ancient Egypt: A contextual history , Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2016, e.g. p. 4‑5, 53‑54).

55 Evidence from the “Records Office” at Amarna, where cuneiform texts were composed, stored, and plausibly studied by Egyptian scribes, perhaps instructed by Hittite teachers, includes material from all levels of a Mesopotamian scribal curriculum, with myths such as Nergal and Ereshkigal or Adapa and the South Wind, on tablets that bear Egyptian verse points (EA 356 + EA 357), probably showing that they were written there from dictation: Shlomo Izre’el, The Amarna Scholarly Tablets , Groningen, Styx, 1997, p. 2, 11, 43‑60; see p. 4‑14 for evidence for a cuneiform scribal school at Amarna.

56 Evidence collected in Raffaella Cribiore, Writing, Teachers, and Students in Graeco-Roman Egypt , Atlanta, Scholars Press, 1996, e.g. p. 43, 89; ead ., “The Grammarian’s Choice: The Popularity of Euripides’ Phoenissae in Hellenistic and Roman Education”, in: Yun Lee Too (ed.), Education in Greek and Roman Antiquity , Leiden, Brill, 2001, p. 241‑259. Daniela Colomo and Chiara Meccariello show that mythological references are found across papyri, attesting to various levels of school education from the 3 rd century BCE to the 8 th century CE. Evidence relates to 18% of beginners’ exercises, 50% of intermediate exercises, and 66% of advanced rhetorical exercises: project “Learning (from) mythology”, presented at the Scholars’ Colloquium of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities, November 2016; we thank Chiara Meccariello for providing some preliminary results prior to publication. For mythos – storytelling – as a basic school exercise in Greek and Roman culture in general see e.g., George A. Kennedy (ed.), Progymnasmata : Greek Textbooks of Prose Composition and Rhetoric , Leiden, Brill, 2003, 9‑10, who cites “The exercises of Aelius Theon”; Anne Gangloff, “Mythes, fables, et rhétorique à l’époque impériale”, Rhetorica 20, 2002, p. 25‑56.

57 They represent a category of beings following terms for sky, water, and earth and preceding spirits ( ȝḫw ) and the king: Alan H. Gardiner, Ancient Egyptian Onomastica , vol. I, London, Oxford University Press, 1947, p. 13*, nos. 63‑64.

59 For tables and figures, see Ursula Verhoeven, “The New Kingdom Graffiti in Tomb N13.1: An overview”, in Jochem Kahl et al. (eds.), Seven Seasons at Asyut: First results of the Egyptian-German cooperation in archaeological fieldwork; Proceedings of an international conference at the University of Sohag, 10th-11th of October, 2009 , The Asyut Project 2, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 2012, p. 47‑58. All the texts are of the Instruction genre, except for Kemyt and the Hymn to the Inundation .

60 Antonio Loprieno, “Defining Egyptian Literature: Ancient texts and modern theory”, in: Antonio Loprieno (ed.), Ancient Egyptian Literature: History and forms , Leiden-New York-Köln, Brill (“Probleme der Ägyptologie”, 10), 1996, p. 39‑58; see also John Baines, “Research on Egyptian Literature: Background, definitions, prospects”, in: Zahi Hawass and Lyla Pinch Brock (eds.), Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century: Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists Cairo, 2000 , 3, Cairo-New York, American University in Cairo Press, 2003, p. 1‑26; Henrike Simon, “Textaufgaben”: Kulturwissenschaftliche Konzepte in Anwendung auf die Literatur der Ramessidenzeit , Hamburg, Buske, 2013, p. 4‑5.

61 For a critical summary of approaches and criteria: Joachim F. Quack, “Irrungen, Wirrungen? Forscherische Ansätze zur Datierung der älteren ägyptischen Literatur”, in: Ralf Ernst et al. (eds.), Dating Egyptian Literary Texts , Hamburg, Widmaier, 2013, p. 405‑469.

62 P. Cairo CG 58040: Richard Parkinson, Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A dark side to perfection , London-New York, Continuum (“Athlone Publications in Egyptology and Ancient Near Eastern Studies”), 2002, p. 294‑295, also listing other possible mythical narrative fragments; John Baines , “Myth and Literature”, in: A. Loprieno (ed.),  Ancient Egyptian Literature , p. 361‑377, esp. 366, suggests that narratives about gods may have been common to genres of belles lettres and magical texts.

63 On P. Berlin 3024, dated to the later 12 th dynasty by R. Parkinson, Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt , p. 300, as part of the “Berlin Library” from Thebes. The find of additional fragments of this papyrus (P. Mallorca I and II) has improved the understanding of both literary works and of the history of their archiving: Marina Escolano-Poveda, “New Fragments of Papyrus Berlin 3024. The missing beginning of the Debate between and Man and his Ba and the continuation of the Tale of the Herdsman (P. Mallorca I and II)”, Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 144, 2017, p. 16‑54.

64 R. Parkinson, The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems, p. 287‑288; id ., Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt , p. 300. Water spell: Coffin Texts , spell 836; see Mordechai Gilula, “Hirtengeschichte 17‑22 = CT VII 36m-r”, Göttinger Miszellen 26, 1978, p. 21‑22.

65 Translations e.g. Miriam Lichtheim , Ancient Egyptian Literature , vol. I. The Old and Middle Kingdoms (2 nd ed.), Berkeley, University of California Press, 2006, p. 211‑214; R. Parkinson, The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems, p. 93‑96.

66 John Baines, “Interpreting the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor”, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology  76, 1990, p. 67; Gerald Moers, Fingierte Welten in der ägyptischen Literatur des 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr. , Leiden, Brill (“Probleme der Ägyptologie”, 19), 2001, p. 249‑250, for interpretations and references.

67 E.g. Maria Theresia Derchain-Urtel , “ Die Schlange des ‘Schiffbrüchigen’”, Studien zur altägyptischen Kultur 1, 1974, p. 83‑104; for a different view: Andrea M. Gnirs , “ Die levantinische Herkunft des Schlangengottes”, in: Heike Guksch and Daniel Polz (eds.), Stationen. Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte Ägyptens Rainer Stadelmann gewidmet , Mainz, Philipp von Zabern, 1998, p. 199‑207.

68 See e.g. G. Moers, Fingierte Welten in der ägyptischen Literatur , p. 245‑251, who sets this tale at the beginning of the travel narratives that highlight literary fictionality.

69 Joachim F. Quack, Studien zu Lehre für Merikare , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Göttinger Orientforschungen”, IV/23), 1992; translations e.g. M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature , vol. I, p. 105‑106; Richard Parkinson, op.   cit. , p. 225‑226. Some scholars date the text to the New Kingdom, but the matter is not settled; see J. F. Quack, “Irrungen, Wirrungen? Forscherische Ansätze zur Datierung der älteren ägyptischen Literatur”, p. 415.

70 Notably the Myth of the Distant Goddess / Solar Eye , in both Demotic (mss 2 nd century AD) and Greek; see Jacqueline E. Jay, Orality and Literacy in the Demotic Tales , Leiden-Boston, Brill (“Culture and History of the Ancient Near East”, 81), 2016, p. 225 with n. 52.

71 Rainer Hirsch-Luipold, “Religion and Myth”, in: Mark Beck (ed.), A Companion to Plutarch , Hoboken, Wiley-Blackwell, 2014, esp. p. 168‑169; for the text see J. Gwyn Griffiths, Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride: edited with an introduction, translation and commentary , Cardiff, University of Wales Press, 1970.

72 Often termed Astarte and the Insatiable Sea and being an Egyptianized version of the tale, known from Ugaritic, of The Battle between Baal and Yam ; see e.g. Philippe Collombert and Laurent Coulon, “Les dieux contre la mer. Le début du ‘papyrus d’Astarté’ (p. BM 202)”, Bulletin de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale 100, 2000, p. 193‑242; William K. Simpson (ed.), The Literature of Ancient Egypt , 3 rd edition, New Haven-London, Yale University Press, 2003, p. 108‑111; Thomas Schneider, “Wie der Sturmgott Ägypten aus der Flut rettete”, Journal for the Society of the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 38, 2011‑12, p. 173‑194; Martin Pehal,  Interpreting Ancient Egyptian Narratives: A structural analysis of the Tale of Two Brothers, the Anat Myth, the Osirian Cycle, and the Astarte Papyrus , Fernelemont, EME Editions (“Nouvelles études orientales”), 2014.

73 See section 2, “Political Uses”, above; similarly Joachim F. Quack , “Erzählen als Preisen: Vom Astartepapyrus zu den koptischen Märtyrerakten”, in: Hubert Roeder (ed.), Das Erzählen in frühen Hochkulturen I, Munich, Fink, 2009, p. 291‑312. Others have cited the Contendings as a literary and potentially non-religious text: Friedrich Junge, “Mythos und Literarizität: Die Geschichte vom Streit der Götter Horus und Seth”, in: Heike Behlmer (ed.), Quaerentes scientiam: Festgabe für Wolfhart Westendorf zu seinem 70. Geburtstag , Göttingen, Seminar für Ägyptologie und Koptologie, 1994, p. 83‑102, esp. p. 99.

74 E.g. P. Deir el-Medina 39, which seems to narrate the killing of a divine falcon by the god Herishef with the help of a human general and a craftsman; see Frank Kammerzell , “Die Tötung des Falkendämonen”, in: Elke Blumenthal, et al. (eds.), Weisheitstexte, Mythen und Epen , Gütersloh, Gütersloher Verlagshaus (“Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments”, 3), 1995, p. 970‑972.

75 Even the best-attested Demotic myth, the Distant Goddess/Solar Eye , has been suggested to derive from a performed ritual that was only later recorded in writing, in various forms and languages; see J. E. Jay, Orality and Literacy in the Demotic Tales , esp. p. 237‑239 with n. 100; 244. The great length of some of its late versions suggests literary development.

76 E.g. Shih-Wei Hsu, Bilder für den Pharao. Untersuchungen zu den bildlichen Ausdrücken des Ägyptischen in den Königsinschriften und anderen Textgattungen , Leiden-Boston, Brill (“Probleme der Ägyptologie”, 36), 2017, p. 159 with n. 86 for the Son of Re name, 165, 398‑402, 412 (New Kingdom attestations).

77 See e.g. Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature , vol. III. The Late Period (2 nd ed.), Berkeley, University of California Press, 2006, p. 79.

78 S.-W. Hsu, Bilder für den Pharao , p. 17‑26 for the use of metaphor versus that of comparative analogy. The idea is that specific aspects of deities can be discerned in the king’s appearance and actions, as when in the Qadesh texts Ramesses II appears as “Seth great-of-strength, Baal in person” ( swtḫ ʿȝ pḥty bʿl m ḥʿw=f ; K RI II, p. 53 §158); elsewhere it is his physical appearance that is analogous to a god’s: he appears from his tent in the morning “like the rising of Re, after having received the panoply of his father Montu” ( mj wbn rʿw šsp.n=f ẖkrw nw jtj=f mnṯw ; K RI II, p. 103 §5). See e.g. Diana Liesegang, “‘Visual images’: Ein königliches Ritual in versprachlichten Bildern”, in: Alexander Manisali and Benedikt Rothöhler (eds.), Mythos und Ritual. Festschrift für Jan Assmann zum 70. Geburtstag , Tübingen, LIT-Verlag, 2008, p. 77‑82; S.-W. Hsu, Bilder für den Pharao , p. 17‑26, 165ff: terms and images for the relationship between king and god; 189‑211: bellicose associations; see also Nicolas Grimal, Les termes de la propagande royale égyptienne de la XIX e dynastie à la conquête d’Alexandre , Paris, De Boccard (“Mémoires de l’Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres”, 6), esp. p. 61‑91; p. 358‑436.

79 E.g. P. Berlin 3023, lines 179‑82; cf. Richard Parkinson, The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant: A reader’s commentary , Hamburg, Widmaier (“Lingua Aegyptia. Studia Monographica”, 10), 2012, p. 28; id ., The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems , p. 65‑66 for translations; also Martin A. Stadler, Weiser und Wesir. Studien zu Vorkommen, Rolle und Wesen des Gottes Thot im Ägyptischen Totenbuch , Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck (“Orientalische Religionen in der Antike”, 1), 2009, 343‑344, esp. n. 115: Thoth as model and prototype for officials of all periods.

80 Ursula Verhoeven, “Von der ‘Loyalistischen Lehre’ zur ‘Lehre des Kairsu’ – Eine neue Textquelle aus Assiut und deren Auswirkungen”, Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 136, 2009, p. 87‑98.

81 On the 12 th dynasty stela of Sehetepibre (Cairo CG 20538, ll. 16‑17) and in New Kingdom manuscripts; see e.g. M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature , vol. I, p. 128; R. Parkinson, The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems , p. 235‑245; Georges Posener, L’Enseignement Loyaliste: sagesse égyptienne du Moyen Empire , Geneva, Droz (“Hautes Études Orientales”, 5), 1976, §5.13, p. 91.

82 Papyrus Insinger (1 st century CE, text likely Ptolemaic), 9 th instruction (8.18), and other fragments. See e.g. M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature , vol. III, p. 192; Friedhelm Hoffmann and Joachim F. Quack, Anthologie der demotischen Literatur , Münster, LIT (“Einführungen und Quellentexte zur Ägyptologie”, 4), 2007, p. 249 with n. 383, who note the astrological significance of this passage. Martin Stadler (“Zwei Bemerkungen zum Papyrus Insinger”, Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 130, 2003, p. 186‑196) argues that the text was originally for funerary use.

83 Alan H. Gardiner, Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, third series: Chester Beatty gift , 2 vols, London, British Museum, 1935, p. 17 pl. 7, P. BM EA 10683,3, recto 8.10.

84 James P. Allen, “Reading a Pyramid”, in: Catherine Berger, Gisèle Clerc, Nicolas Grimal (eds.), Hommages à Jean Leclant , vol. I, Cairo, Institut français d’archéologie orientale (“Bibliothèque d’étude”, 106), 1994, p. 5‑28; Deborah Vischak, “Common Ground between Pyramid Texts and Old Kingdom Tomb Design: the case of Ankhmahor”, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 40, 2003, p. 133‑157. The approach was critiqued by Harold Hays , “ Unreading the Pyramids”, Bulletin de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale 109, 2009, p. 195‑220, rebutted in turn e.g. by Bernard Mathieu, “Re-reading the Pyramids : repères pour une lecture spatialisée des Textes des Pyramides”, in: Susanne Bickel and Lucía Díaz-Iglesias Llanos (eds.), Studies in Ancient Egyptian Funerary Literature , Leuven, Peeters (“Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta”, 257), 2017, p. 375‑462, who identifies ȝḫt and dwȝt with slightly different areas of the structures.

85 E.g. Silvia Wiebach-Koepke, Sonnenlauf und kosmische Regeneration: Zur Systematik der Lebensprozesse in den Unterweltsbüchern , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Ägypten und Altes Testament”, 71), 2007.

86 Thus, in one example among many, an inscription on the exterior of the Luxor temple designates it as the god’s “great place of the first time (of creation), in an effective work of eternity ( ḏt )” ( Urk . IV, 1709.13‑14). See also Erik Hornung , “ The Temple as Cosmos”, in: id., Idea into Image: Essays on ancient Egyptian thought , New York, Timken, 1992 (trans. E. Bredeck), p. 115‑130; Luc Gabolde, “L’implantation du temple. Contingences religieuses et contraintes géomorphologiques”, Égypte Afrique et Orient 68, 2012, p. 3‑12; Arielle P. Kozloff, et al. , Egypt’s Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep III and his world , Cleveland, Cleveland Museum of Art, 1992, p. 73‑124: influence of solar and lunar myths on architecture.

87 Annals of Amenemhat II: Hartwig Altenmüller, Zwei Annalenfragmente aus dem frühen Mittleren Reich , Hamburg, Buske (“Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur Beiheft”, 16), 2015, p. 317, col. x+14; see p. 54‑57 for discussion. Late birth houses: François Daumas, Les mammisis des temples égyptiens , Paris, Les Belles Lettres (“Annales de l’Université de Lyon, 3 e série, Lettres”, 32), 1958.

88 See e.g. Dagmar Budde, “Child deities”, in: Jacco Dieleman and Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology , 2010 ( http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9cf2v6q3 ); Dagmar Budde et al. (eds.), Kindgötter im Ägypten der griechisch-römischen Zeit: Zeugnisse aus Stadt und Tempel als Spiegel des interkulturellen Kontakts , Leuven, Peeters (“Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta”, 128), 2003.

89 Philippe Derchain, “Réflexions sur la décoration des pylônes”, Bulletin de la Société française d’égyptologie 46, 1966, p. 17‑24 ; Steven B. Shubert, “Studies on the Egyptian Pylon”, Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 11/3, 1981, p. 135‑164; Ulrike Fauerbach, “Architektur, Licht und Schatten: Pylon und Hof von Edfu als Sonnenkalender?”, in: Ben J. J. Haring and Andrea Klug (eds.),  6. Ägyptologische Tempeltagung: Funktion und Gebrauch altägyptischer Tempelräume. Leiden, 4.-7. September 2002 , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 2007, p. 105‑118.

90 Attested from the Old Kingdom onwards; see Beatrix Gessler-Löhr , Die heiligen Seen ägyptischer Tempel : Ein Beitrag zur Deutung sakraler Baukunst im alten Ägypten , Hildesheim, Gerstenberg (“Hildesheimer ägyptologische Beiträge”, 21), 1983, p. 401‑424. On the Graeco-Roman Period: Ragnhild B. Finnestad , “ Temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods: Ancient traditions in new contexts”, in: Byron. E. Shafer (ed.) , Temples of ancient Egypt , Ithaca-London, Cornell University Press, 1997, p. 185‑237.

91 Ute Rummel, “Der Leib der Göttin: Materialität und Semantik ägyptischer Felslandschaft”, in: Susanne Beck et al. (eds.), Gebauter Raum: Architektur –   Landschaft   – Mensch. Beiträge des fünften Münchner Arbeitskreises Junge Ägyptologie (MAJA 5) , 12.12. bis 14.12.2014 , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Göttinger Orientforschungen”, 62), 2016, p. 41‑74.

92 Probably under Khendjer in the 13th dynasty, a basalt statue of the mummiform god on his bier, impregnating Isis in the form of a kite, was placed in this tomb: Anthony Leahy, “The Osiris ‘Bed’ Reconsidered”, Orientalia 46, 1977, p. 424‑434; David O’Connor , Abydos: Egypt’s first pharaohs and the cult of Osiris. London, Thames & Hudson (“New Aspects of Antiquity”), 2009, p. 89‑90 with fig. 42; Franck Goddio and Aurélia Masson-Berghoff (eds.), Sunken Cities: Egypt’s Lost Worlds . The British Museum Exhibition , London, Thames and Hudson, 2016, p. 155.

93 Survey: Marie-Christine Lavier, “Les fêtes d’Osiris à Abydos au Moyen Empire et au Nouvel Empire”, Égypte Afrique & Orient 10, 1998, 27‑38; D. O’Connor , Abydos: Egypt’s First Pharaohs and the Cult of Osiris , p. 70‑135; Ute and Andreas Effland, Abydos: Tor zur ägyptischen Unterwelt , Sonderbände der Antiken Welt , Darmstadt, Philipp von Zabern, 2013; John Baines, High Culture and Experience in Ancient Egypt , Sheffield-Bristol, Equinox (“Studies in Egyptology and the Ancient Near East”), 2013, p. 27‑150, 102‑117 (mortuary landscapes).

94 See e.g. Arne Egberts, “Mythos und Fest. Überlegungen zur Dekoration der westlichen Innenseite der Umfassungsmauer im Tempel von Edfu”, in: Rolf Gundlach and Matthias Rochholz (eds.), 4. Ägyptologische Tempeltagung; Köln, 10.-12. Oktober 1996: Feste im Tempel , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Ägypten und Altes Testament”, 33/2), 1998, p. 17‑29; Martina Ullmann, “Thebes: Origins of a ritual landscape”, in: Peter F. Dorman and Betsy M. Bryan (eds.), Sacred Space and Sacred Function in Ancient Thebes , Chicago, Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (“Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations”, 61), 2007, p. 3‑25, highlights Karnak as the core of the Theban ritual landscape.

95 See Felix Arnold, “Pharaonische Prozessionsstraßen. Mittel der Machtdarstellung unter Königin Hatschepsut”, in: Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner and Klaus Rheidt (eds.), Macht der Architektur –   Architektur der Macht: Bauforschungskolloquium in Berlin vom 30. Oktober bis 2. November 2002 , Mainz, Philipp von Zabern (“Diskussionen zur archäologischen Bauforschung”, 8), 2004, p. 13‑23; Dieter Kurth, “Die Reise der Hathor von Dendera nach Edfu”, in: Rolf Gundlach and Matthias Rochholz (eds.), Ägyptische Tempel: Struktur, Funktion und Programm. Akten der Ägyptologischen Tempeltagungen in Gosen 1990 und in Mainz 1992 , Hildesheim, Gerstenberg (“Hildesheimer ägyptologische Beiträge”, 37), 1994, p. 211‑216; Andreas Effland and Jens-Peter Graeff, “Neues zur Lage von Behedet”, in: Andreas Effland et al. (eds.), “ Nunmehr ein offenes Buch...” –   Das Edfu-Projekt. Herausgegeben zum 160. Geburtstag des Marquis Maxence de Rochemonteix (1849‑1891) , Hamburg, University of Hamburg, 2009, p. 34‑52.

96 A survey focusing on late evidence: Joachim F. Quack, “Lokalressourcen oder Zentraltheologie? Zur Relevanz und Situierung geographisch strukturierter Mythologie im alten Ägypten”, Archiv für Religionsgeschichte  10, 2008, p. 5‑29; for myths of the delta see D. Meeks, Mythes et légendes du delta d’après le Papyrus Brooklyn 47.218.84 , 2006. A striking example can be found in the Fayyum, where the sungod and creator emerges from Lake Moeris every morning as a crocodile: Horst Beinlich, Der Mythos in seiner Landschaft: das ägyptische „Buch vom Fayum“ 1: Die hieroglyphischen Texte , Dettelbach, J. H. Röll (“Studien zu den Ritualszenen altägyptischer Tempel”, 11/1), 2013, with refs; Horst Beinlich, et al. (eds.), Egypt’s Mysterious Book of the Faiyum , Dettelbach, J. H. Röll, 2013, p. 53‑55 with fig. 28; p. 75 fig. 51; p. 77 § 3; see also the next note.

97 For conceptions and uses of landscape, see J. Baines, High Culture and Experience in Ancient Egypt , p. 21‑150; p. 127 with fig. 41: Lake Moeris identified both as “The temple of Sobek” and as the “Shen-ring around Ra, Osiris, Horus, and Pharao” (P. Boulaq I, Cairo, JE 95571).

98 Maria Costanza Centrone, Egyptian Corn-Mummies: A class of religious artefacts catalogued and systematically analysed , Saarbrücken, Dr. Müller, 2009.

99 E.g. Silvia Wiebach-Koepke, Sonnenlauf und kosmische Regeneration: zur Systematik der Lebensprozesse in den Unterweltsbüchern , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Ägypten und Altes Testament”, 71), 2007, p. 11 fig. 2, 175, 195, 198, 203‑204.

100 Horst Beinlich, Die “Osirisreliquien”: Zum Motiv der Körperzergliederung in der altägyptischen Religion, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Ägyptologische Abhandlungen”, 42), 1984.

101 See e.g. Erik Hornung, “Die Tragweite der Bilder: Altägyptische Bildaussagen”, Eranos-Jahrbuch 48, 1979 [1981], p. 183‑237, focusing on images of sunrise and sunset; “narrative” detail in underworld books: Katja Goebs, “Expressing Luminosity in Iconography: Features of the solar bark in the tomb of Ramesses VI”, Göttinger Miszellen 165, 1998, p. 57‑71.

102 Divine Birth: see section 2 with n. 28; Edfu: e.g. Arno Egberts, “The Chronology of the Horus Myth of Edfu”, in: Jacobus van Dijk (ed.),  Essays on Ancient Egypt in Honour of Herman te Velde , Groningen, Styx, 1997, p. 47‑54.

103 E.g. Heinrich Schäfer, “Die Ausdeutung der Spiegelplatte als Sonnenscheibe”, Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 68, 1932, p. 1‑7; Constance Husson, L’offrande du miroir dans les temples égyptiens de l’époque gréco-romaine , Lyon, Audin, 1977; other cosmetic items: Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt, “Un ‘lac de turquoise’: godets à onguents et destinées d’outre-tombe dans l’Égypte ancienne”, Monuments et mémoires 47, 1953, p. 1‑34.

104 Cairo CG 14. See e.g. Mohmed Saleh and Hourig Sourouzian, The Egyptian Museum, Cairo: Official Catalogue , Cairo-Mainz, Organisation of Egyptian Antiquities and Philipp von Zabern, 1987, no. 31. The throne has lion heads but bovid legs.

105 Michael Berger, “The Petroglyphs at Locality 61”, in: Michael Allen Hoffman, The Predynastic of Hierakonpolis: An interim report , Giza and Macomb (Ill.), Cairo University Herbarium and Macomb Department of Sociology and Anthropology (“Egyptian Studies Association Publication”, 1), 1982, p. 62, fig. I.18; Pyramid Text attestation for example in the Cannibal Spell, Pyr. 397a.

106 See e.g. Geoffrey Killen, Ancient Egyptian Furniture: 4000‑1300 BC / boxes, chests and footstools , Warminster, Aris & Phillips, 1980‑1994 [reprinted 2017], p. 32 nos 12‑13, pl. 40. Middle Kingdom “magic wands” place Bes-like figures in a cosmic context: Stephen Quirke, Birth Tusks: The armoury of health in context –   Egypt 1800 BC , London, Golden House (“Middle Kingdom Studies”, 3), 2016, p. 357‑363.

107 Early Old Kingdom bovine furniture legs: Alexander Wenzel, Die Formen der altägyptischen Liege und Sitzmöbel und ihre Entwicklung bis zum Ende des Alten Reiches, Heidelberg, Hörning, 1939, e.g. p. 49, who saw them as evoking royal associations with a wild bull; leonine legs: ibid ., p. 49, 76, 115. See also G. Killen, Ancient Egyptian Furniture , pls 1, 36, 40, 42. Later royal furniture is additionally ornamented with leonine heads: ibid . p. 62‑63 with fig. 32. For Taweret as the personified bier see H. Beinlich, et al. (eds.), Egypt’s Mysterious Book of the Faiyum , p. 55‑59 with figs 31‑32, 35, 37; in the Book of the Fayyum the bier-goddess appears as a form of Neith.

108 E.g. Cyril Aldred, Jewels of the Pharaohs: Egyptian Jewellery of the Dynastic Period , London, Thames & Hudson, 1971, pls 106, 108; Hans-Wolfgang Müller and Eberhard Thiem,  The Royal Gold of Ancient Egypt , London, I. B. Tauris, 1999, p. 178: pectoral of Tutankhamun with winged Khepri pushing the lunar Wedjat into the sky.

109 See Carol Andrews,  Amulets of Ancient Egypt , London, British Museum Press, 1994, e.g. p. 16, 22, 23 fig. 19b, for a Saite amulet showing Neith suckling two crocodiles.

111 For these interpretations, see chapters 33‑38 (J. G. Griffiths, Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride , p. 168‑179); 41‑43 ( ibid ., p. 182‑87); 44 ( ibid . p. 186‑189); 52 ( ibid ., p. 202‑203); 65 ( ibid ., p. 220‑221). For Plutarch’s meticulous descriptions of religions, gods, and cults, see e.g. R. Hirsch-Luipold, “Religion and Myth”, esp. p. 172‑176; for his interpretations in the context of his time see e.g. Lautaro Roig Lancillotta, “Plutarch at the Crossroads of Religion and Philosophy”, in: Lautaro Roig Lancillotta and Israel Muñoz Gallarte (eds.), Plutarch in the Religious and Philosophical Discourse of Late Antiquity , Leiden-Boston, Brill (“Ancient Mediterranean and Medieval Texts and Contexts”, 14), 2012, p. 1‑21.

112 See e.g. Reinhold Merkelbach , Isis Regina –   Zeus Serapis. Die griechisch-ägyptische Religion nach den Quellen dargestellt , 2 nd ed., Leipzig-Munich, Saur, 2001. Older account of these cults: Reginald E. Witt , Isis in the Graeco-Roman world, London, Thames and Hudson (“Aspects of Greek and Roman Life”), 1971.

113 Synesius of Cyrene: Martin Hose (ed.), Ägyptische Erzählungen oder Über die Vorsehung , Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2012; with thanks to Frank Feder for this reference.

114 In the sense of Philippe Derchain, “Perpetuum mobile”, Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica 6/7, 1976, p. 153‑161. On interpretations of these designations of time, see e.g. Ina Hegenbarth-Reichard, Der Raum der Zeit , eine Untersuchung zu den altägyptischen Vorstellungen und Konzeptionen von Zeit und Raum anhand des Unterweltbuches Amduat , Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz (“Ägypten und Altes Testament”, 64), 2006, p. 35‑37; see also Frédéric Servajean,  Djet et Neheh: une histoire du temps égyptien , Montpellier, Presses Universitaires de la Méditerranée (“Orientalia Monspeliensia”, 18), 2007, with a different approach.

List of illustrations

Bibliographical reference

Katja Goebs and John Baines , “ Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth ” ,  Revue de l’histoire des religions , 4 | 2018, 645-681.

Electronic reference

Katja Goebs and John Baines , “ Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth ” ,  Revue de l’histoire des religions [Online], 4 | 2018, Online since 01 December 2020 , connection on 16 September 2024 . URL : http://journals.openedition.org/rhr/9334; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/rhr.9334

About the authors

Katja goebs.

University of Toronto katja.goebs[at]utoronto.ca

John Baines

University of Oxford john.baines[at]orinst.ox.ac.uk

The text and other elements (illustrations, imported files) are “All rights reserved”, unless otherwise stated.

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Egyptian Myth: A Very Short Introduction

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Egyptian Myth: A Very Short Introduction explores the cultural and historical background behind a wide variety of sources and objects on Egyptian mythology, from Cleopatra's Needle and Tutankhamun's golden statue, to a story on papyrus of the gods misbehaving. The world of Egyptian myth is complex. Mythology was an integral part of Egyptian culture for much of its timespan. What did the myths mean, and how have they been interpreted? How have the myths of deities such as Isis and Osiris influenced contemporary culture and become part of our cultural heritage?

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Creation myths and form(s) of the gods in ancient Egypt

Full page black line vignette of the deities Geb, Nut, and Shu. Geb, god of the earth, stretches out below the sky-goddess Nut, who arches overhead. They are separated by the god of air, Shu, who is supported in this task. The deceased kneels to the lower right, accompanied by her ba-spirit and surrounded by groups of gods. The Greenfield Papyrus , c. 950–930 B.C.E., 21st–22nd dynasty, papyrus, excavated at First Cache, Upper Egypt, Deir el-Bahri (the Book of the Dead of Nesitanebtashru) (© Trustees of the British Museum )

Lord of Chaos, the god Seth was associated with a distinctive and unidentified animal with squared-off ears and an elongated, down-curved snout, Karnak, Egypt (Open Air Museum, Karnak; photo: Dr. Amy Calvert)

Egypt’s mythic world, rich with creative imagery, was deeply informed by the natural world that surrounded them. The divine landscape and the stories about the beings that inhabited it continued to evolve through Egyptian history. Over time, these myths wove an elaborate tapestry of meaning and significance, often presenting layered, seemingly contradictory viewpoints that existed simultaneously without apparent conflict.

Ourobos (detail), a shrine from the tomb of Tutankhamun, 18th dynasty, New Kingdom of Egypt (Egyptian Museum, Cairo; photo: Djehouty, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Similarly, the concept of time in ancient Egypt was rather fluid; it was believed to move at different rates for certain beings and regions of the cosmos and was viewed as simultaneously linear and cyclical. Obviously, individual Egyptians experienced linear time —living their lives from birth to death—but they were also intimate with cyclical time, as evidenced in nature by the solar cycles, annual floods, and repeating astronomical patterns. They believed that an ongoing cycle of decay, death, and rebirth was what provided for the eternal consistency of the stable universe and allowed it to flourish. Fittingly, the ouroboros—the image of a snake eating its own tail and potent symbol of regeneration—originated in Egypt. 

The prehistoric peoples of the Nile region, like many other early populations, revered powers of the natural world, both animate and inanimate. While some deities, like the sun god Ra, were linked with inanimate natural phenomena, most of the first clear examples of divinities were connected to animals. Falcon gods and cattle goddesses were among the earliest and may well have developed in the context of Neolithic cattle herding .

The enigmatic scenes on this monumental macehead have been much debated. They could represent the king’s heb-sed festival, divine rituals, or a royal wedding, among other possibilities. In this view, there are divine standards being carried in the top register, while the lower register shows cattle, goats, and a kneeling human with numbers under them indicating how many were captured or being presented. Narmer Macehead, Early Dynastic Period, c. 31st century B.C.E., found in Hierakonopolis (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford)

Already in the Early Dynastic period (c. 3100–2686 B.C.E.), there is significant evidence for the existence of many deities that were represented in human, animal, or hybrid forms (usually with human bodies and animal heads). Cult objects (statues of gods) in their local shrines shown being revered by the king were depicted on objects found in royal tombs of this period and may record actual visits by the ruler to different parts of the country to engage with those deities. The dedication of such cult images and participation in their rituals by the king was one of the most essential royal duties. Around 3000 B.C.E. when Egypt was unified under a single ruler , these disparate local deities appear to have been organized into a pantheon with relationships created between them, and these connections may have sparked various mythic stories. 

The Turin king list, or the Royal Canon of Turin, papyrus

There are great challenges in the study of Egyptian mythology, not the least of which are the large gaps in our knowledge due to the whims of preservation. Our most cohesive records are texts from the later periods, which often record detailed stories that present seemingly contradictory accounts. For example, there were diverse and complementary creation myths and cosmogonies (stories about the origins of the universe) that overlap to present different aspects of their understanding of how the world and the gods came into being. In the view of the ancient Egyptians, there were seven stages to the mythical timeline of the world: 

• the chaos that existed pre-creation, 
• the emergence of the creator deity,
• the creation (by various means) of the world and the differentiation of beings, 
• the reign of the sun god, 
• direct rule by other deities, 
• rule by human kings, and 
• a return to the chaos of the primeval waters.  

At different times and in various locations, a variety of deities were identified with the creator god who emerged from the primordial waters to initiate and differentiate the cosmos. These included Ra, Atum, Khnum, Ptah, Hathor, and Isis. These myriad versions of the process of creation were connected to and promoted by cult centers, that emphasized the role of their patron deity in the process. 

The three major variations of the Egyptian creation story are commonly referred to today by the cult locations where these variations were most heavily promoted: Hermopolis (Khemnu), Heliopolis (Iunu), and Memphis (Ineb-hedj).

While they differ in the details and focus on the primacy of their own local deities, all these creation systems are also quite similar in their approach, where a chaotic, amorphous watery mass of potentiality was brought under control through the establishment of ma’at and given form through the will of a creator. Many variations on these themes appeared that fit into the basic frameworks—the emerging sun god was sometimes visualized as a falcon, a scarab beetle, or a child (among other manifestations)—but all materialized from a mound and/or primeval waters. An understanding of these overlapping creation myths, and a recognition of the fact that they existed simultaneously with no apparent conflict, hints at the complexity of the mythological world of ancient Egypt.

Creation Myths

Hermopolis—cult center of the Eight

The sun rises from the mound of creation at the beginning of time. The central circle represents the mound, and the three orange circles are the sun in different stages of its rising. At the top is the “horizon” hieroglyph with the sun appearing atop it. At either side are the goddesses of the north and south, pouring out the waters that surround the mound. The eight stick figures are the gods of the Ogdoad, hoeing the soil. “The Creation of the World,” detail in the Book of the Dead of Khensumose, c. 1075–945 B.C.E., Twenty-first Dynasty (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)

The Hermopolitan view (centered in Hermopolis) presented a vision of creation as a mound of earth that emerged from the primordial waters of chaos. A lotus blossom grew from this mound, opened, and revealed the newborn sun god, which brought light to the cosmos and initiated creation. Within the primeval waters were believed to be four pairs of male and female deities, known as the Ogdoad (“group of eight”) who represented elements of the pre-creation cosmos. Often represented with the heads of frogs and snakes, these chthonic beings as being associated with the primeval flood. Until the first light appeared, these beings were viewed as inert, containing the potential of creation but only “activated” when the young sun emerged from the lotus. The names of these deities, who were considered the “mothers” and “fathers” of the sun god, were masculine and feminine versions of the elements: Water (Nun & Nunet), Infinity (Heh & Hauhet), Darkness (Kek & Kauket), and Hiddenness (Amun & Amaunet).

Heliopolis —cult center of Atum

Detail of the air god Shu, assisted by other gods, holds up Nut, the sky, as Geb, the earth, lies beneath. From The Greenfield Papyrus, c. 950–930 B.C.E., 21st–22nd dynasty, papyrus, excavated at First Cache, Upper Egypt, Deir el-Bahri (the Book of the Dead of Nesitanebtashru) (© Trustees of the British Museum )

The sun god plays a primary role in the Heliopolitan creation theology. In this system, creation was enacted by a group of deities referred to as the Great Ennead. This “group of nine” consisted of the sun god, in his form as Atum, and a series of eight descendents. In this story, Atum already existed in the primordial waters (sometimes said to have been “in his egg”) and emerged alone to initiate creation. Atum was said to be “he who came into being by himself”and he then created his first two descendants, Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture) from his bodily fluids. Shu and Tefnut then created the next pair of gods, Geb (earth) and Nut (sky), providing the physical framework for the world. Geb and Nut then produced the gods Osiris and Isis, and Seth and Nephthys. These pairs, in one sense, represented the fertile Nile valley (Osiris & Isis) and the desert that surrounded it (Seth & Nephthys), completing the primary elements of the Egyptian cosmos. As all these deities were viewed as being extensions of and proceeding from the sun god, he was generally portrayed as the ruler of the gods.

Memphis—cult center of the great craftsman Ptah

This slab was reused as a millstone, which is why it is horribly worn in that spoke pattern. If you zoom in on the image you have, you will see the vertical lines of text. The Shabako Stone, 710 B.C.E., 25th dynasty, found in Memphis, Egypt, 95 x 137 cm ( © Trustees of the British Museum )

The Memphite Theology is recorded on an important artifact now known as the Shabaka Stone. This black basalt stelae was originally set up in the ancient temple of Ptah at Memphis and preserves the only surviving copy of this religious text. According to the inscription, which is heavily damaged, the text of the stelae was copied from an ancient worm-eaten papyrus that the pharaoh Shabaka ordered to be transcribed in order to preserve it (this story, however, is debatable). The text contains references to the Heliopolitan account but then claims that the Memphite god, the chthonic Ptah, preceded the sun god and created Atum. Ptah was viewed as the “great craftsman” and the text alludes to creation being enacted through his conscious will and rational thought—the form of the earth was described as being brought about via his creative speech. 

These variations on core mythic elements may have resulted from attempts to incorporate deities that emerged at various times and locations into an existing framework of creation stories.

Netjer hieroglyph written as a wrapped pole with a flag on top. A row of netjer signs from the tomb of Ramses VI (KV9). Painted details show the pattern of the wrapping used on these divine symbols (photo: Dr. Amy Calvert)

The form(s) of the gods

The Egyptian word that modern scholars translate as “god” is netjer , which is written in hieroglyphs as a wrapped pole with a flag on top—a symbol of divine presence that dates back to Predynastic times. However, it is clear that this term encompassed not only what we would consider gods, but also deified humans, other types of supernatural beings, and even chaotic monsters (like the great serpent Apophis who was the chief foe of the sun god Ra). Spirits of the deceased ( akhu ), demon-like dwellers of the underworld, and beings called bau , which were manifestations of the gods that served as their messengers, were also feared and revered. 

The human Hunefer being led by Horus (falcon-headed) to stand before Osiris (seated), with Isis and Nephthys behind him. Judgement in the presence of Osiris, Book of the Dead, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E., papyrus, Thebes, Egypt (British Museum)

The gods took various physical forms: anthropomorphic (human), zoomorphic (animal), hybrid (with the head of either a human or animal and the body of the opposite type), and composite (where characteristics of different deities were merged into one form). Many deities were fluid in the way they were represented and a truly fixed form for any deity was quite uncommon—sometimes, only the name clearly specifies which deity is being represented. The god Thoth, for example, was often depicted with a human body and the head of an ibis but could also be represented in fully-animal form as an ibis or as a baboon.

Capital of Hathor with a human head and bovine ears (left) and Hathor in Bovine form (right), both from the Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Dayr al-Baḥrī, Egypt, c. 1470 B.C.E. (photos: Dr. Amy Calvert)

Few deities were shown in all three main representational modes, but there were exceptions, such as the goddess Hathor, who could be portrayed fully human, fully bovine, or as a woman with a cow head. Keep in mind that these representations were not what the gods actually looked like in the Egyptian conception. Instead, they were visualizations of the deities’ characteristics, providing physical forms that allowed for interaction with the gods.

Wall relief of The Theban Triad, Amun, Mut, and Khonsu (left to right), mortuary temple of Ramses III, Medinet Habu, Theban Necropolis, Egypt (photo: Rémih, CC BY-SA 3.0)

There were also many other types of groupings of deities, especially triads. These father-mother-child groupings, like the Theban Triad of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, were viewed collectively in certain contexts but each still maintained their individuality. Rather different was a practice known as syncretism where different deities were merged into one body. This appears to have been an effort to acknowledge when a deity was dwelling “within” another deity when performing roles that were primarily functions of the other. Often these were combinations of similar deities or different aspects of the same god, such as Atum-Khepri, which combined the dusk and dawn manifestations of the sun god. Other examples merged deities of very different nature, such as Amun-Ra, where the “hidden one” (mentioned above) was combined with the visible power of the sun to create the “King of the Gods.” 

Ra and Osiris merged into one (center figure), tomb of Nefertari, 19th dynasty c 1290 1220 BCE, Middle Kingdom, West Thebes Egypt

Death, cycles, and the end of time

Egyptian deities were not static beings. Osiris, one of their most important gods, actually died (although the texts never directly say this, they do refer to him being dismembered, mummified, and buried) and then was transformed into the Lord of the Underworld. Others, like the sun god Ra, had cycles—Ra was believed to reach his zenith at midday (as Harakhti), grow old at the end of the day (as Atum), “die” at night, merging with Osiris in the depths of the netherworld to enact regeneration, and then was resurrected again with the dawn (as Khepri). In the Egyptian view, life led to death and then death re-emerged as new life; this cycle applied to humans and the gods alike, enabling them to become young again with eternal sameness. 

At the end of time, the Egyptians believed that all the variety of the cosmos, including the gods, would revert to the undifferentiated condition of time before creation, with everything merging back into the primeval waters of potentiality.

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Ancient Egypt Research Paper Topics

This page serves as a comprehensive guide to ancient Egypt research paper topics , providing a wealth of resources for students delving into this intriguing period of history. From the outset, we provide an expansive list of 100 research paper topics, thoughtfully divided into ten categories, each focusing on a unique aspect of ancient Egyptian history. Further, we offer expert advice on how to choose a topic within the realm of ancient Egypt and provide practical guidance on writing a compelling and academically rigorous research paper on the chosen subject. We also introduce iResearchNet’s custom writing services, where students can order a customized research paper on any topic related to ancient Egypt.

100 Ancient Egypt Research Paper Topics

Ancient Egypt, with its rich and fascinating history, offers a wealth of research opportunities for students studying art history. Exploring the various aspects of ancient Egyptian civilization can provide valuable insights into their culture, religion, art, architecture, daily life, and more. In this section, we present a comprehensive list of ancient Egypt research paper topics that cover a wide range of subjects within the realm of ancient Egyptian history. These topics are organized into ten categories, each offering unique perspectives and avenues for exploration.

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Pharaohs and Rulers

• The role of pharaohs in ancient Egyptian society
• Hatshepsut: The female pharaoh and her reign
• Akhenaten’s religious revolution: A study of the Amarna period
• Ramses II: The great pharaoh and his achievements
• The fall of the New Kingdom: Factors and consequences
• Pharaoh Amenhotep III and his cultural contributions
• Cleopatra: The last pharaoh of Egypt
• Pharaoh Seti I and the construction of the Temple of Karnak
• Thutmose III: The warrior pharaoh and his military campaigns
• The reign of Tutankhamun: Discovery of the boy king’s tomb

Religion and Mythology

• Egyptian gods and goddesses: Roles and significance
• Rituals and religious practices in ancient Egypt
• The Book of the Dead: Beliefs about the afterlife
• The cult of Osiris: God of the dead and rebirth
• The sun god Ra and his worship in ancient Egypt
• The role of temples in ancient Egyptian religious practices
• Animal symbolism in ancient Egyptian mythology
• Mythological tales and their impact on ancient Egyptian culture
• Religious ceremonies and festivals in ancient Egypt
• Mummification and burial practices in ancient Egyptian religion

Art and Architecture

• The construction techniques and symbolism of the pyramids
• Hieroglyphics: The ancient Egyptian writing system
• Tomb paintings and their portrayal of ancient Egyptian life
• The architecture of temples: Karnak, Luxor, and Abu Simbel
• The art of jewelry and personal adornment in ancient Egypt
• Sculpture and statuary in ancient Egyptian art
• Funerary art and its significance in ancient Egyptian culture
• The use of color in ancient Egyptian art
• The influence of ancient Egyptian art on later civilizations
• The art of Amarna: A departure from traditional Egyptian style

Daily Life and Society

• Social structure and classes in ancient Egypt
• The role of women in ancient Egyptian society
• Daily life in ancient Egyptian households
• Food and cuisine in ancient Egypt
• Clothing and fashion in ancient Egyptian society
• Education and literacy in ancient Egypt
• Sports and recreation in ancient Egyptian culture
• Slavery and servitude in ancient Egypt
• Medicine and healthcare practices in ancient Egypt
• Ancient Egyptian marriage and family life

Trade and Economy

• Trade networks and routes in ancient Egypt
• Agriculture and irrigation systems along the Nile River
• Economic activities and industries in ancient Egypt
• Currency and trade in ancient Egyptian society
• Mining and quarrying in ancient Egypt
• The role of merchants in ancient Egyptian trade
• International trade relations of ancient Egypt
• Taxation and economic policies in ancient Egypt
• Economic development during the New Kingdom
• Trade with neighboring civilizations: Nubia, Mesopotamia, and the Levant

Science and Technology

• Mathematics and astronomy in ancient Egypt
• Engineering marvels: The construction of pyramids
• Medical practices and healthcare in ancient Egypt
• Ancient Egyptian understanding of anatomy and physiology
• Papyrus: The ancient Egyptian writing material
• Agricultural techniques and innovations in ancient Egypt
• Nautical technology and shipbuilding in ancient Egypt
• Astronomy and celestial observations in ancient Egypt
• Ancient Egyptian calendar systems and timekeeping
• Technological advancements in ancient Egyptian society

Temples and Monuments

• The significance and symbolism of the Sphinx
• The architecture of the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak
• The temples of Luxor: Religious sanctuaries of ancient Egypt
• Abu Simbel: The grand temple complex of Ramses II
• The Valley of the Kings: Tombs of the pharaohs
• The mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari
• The temple of Horus at Edfu: A well-preserved ancient Egyptian structure
• The temple of Kom Ombo: A unique double temple
• The temple of Isis at Philae: A sanctuary dedicated to the goddess
• The rock-cut temples of Abu Simbel: A UNESCO World Heritage site

Literature and Texts

• The literature of ancient Egypt: Prose, poetry, and hymns
• The wisdom literature of Ptahhotep and Amenemope
• The love poetry of ancient Egypt
• The story of Sinuhe: A masterpiece of ancient Egyptian literature
• The instruction texts and moral teachings in ancient Egyptian society
• Magical and medical texts in ancient Egypt
• The Westcar Papyrus: Tales of ancient Egyptian pharaohs
• The Coffin Texts: Spells and rituals for the afterlife
• The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys: Mourning rituals in ancient Egypt
• The Amduat: The ancient Egyptian funerary text

Religion and Pharaohs

• The divine kingship ideology in ancient Egypt
• The cult of Amun and the rise of his priesthood
• Atenism: The monotheistic revolution of Akhenaten
• The cult of Osiris and its influence on ancient Egyptian beliefs
• The role of priests and priestesses in ancient Egyptian society
• The pharaoh as a religious and political figure
• The rituals and ceremonies of temple worship in ancient Egypt
• Funerary rites and beliefs in the afterlife
• Divine queens: The role of royal women in religious practices
• The worship of animal gods and goddesses in ancient Egypt

Foreign Relations and Influence

• Ancient Egypt’s interactions with Nubia: Trade and diplomacy
• The influence of Mesopotamian culture on ancient Egypt
• Ancient Egypt and the Hittites: Wars and peace treaties
• Egyptian connections with the civilizations of the Levant
• The impact of Greek and Roman culture on ancient Egypt
• Foreign influences on Egyptian art and architecture
• The influence of ancient Egyptian religion on neighboring civilizations
• Ancient Egyptian expeditions and exploration beyond Egypt’s borders
• The role of mercenaries in ancient Egyptian military campaigns
• Egyptian artifacts and influence found in other ancient civilizations

The ancient civilization of Egypt continues to captivate the imagination of scholars and enthusiasts alike. From the enigmatic pharaohs and their grand monuments to the intricate religious beliefs and artistic expressions, the study of ancient Egypt offers endless possibilities for research and exploration. By delving into the ancient Egypt research paper topics presented here, students can uncover new insights and make meaningful contributions to the field of art history. Whether your interests lie in the tombs of the pharaohs, the spiritual beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, or the architectural wonders that still stand today, the world of ancient Egypt awaits your exploration.

Ancient Egypt: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

The ancient civilization of Egypt, with its majestic pyramids, enigmatic hieroglyphs, and legendary pharaohs, continues to fascinate scholars and students alike. The study of ancient Egypt offers a treasure trove of research paper topics that shed light on the rich history, culture, and contributions of this remarkable civilization. In this section, we will embark on a comprehensive exploration of the diverse range of ancient Egypt research paper topics available in ancient Egyptian history, inviting students to delve deeper into the captivating world of ancient Egypt.

• Pharaohs and Rulers : The Pharaohs of ancient Egypt held immense power and were regarded as divine beings. Research paper topics in this category could delve into the role of pharaohs in ancient Egyptian society, examining their political, religious, and cultural significance. Students could explore the lives of famous rulers like Hatshepsut, Ramses II, and Akhenaten, analyzing their reigns, achievements, and the impact they had on the development of Egypt.
• Religion and Mythology : Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of beliefs, rituals, and myths that shaped every aspect of life. Topics in this category could explore the pantheon of gods and goddesses worshipped by the ancient Egyptians, the rituals and ceremonies performed in temples, and the role of religion in society. Students could also delve into the fascinating world of Egyptian mythology, examining creation stories, the afterlife, and the concept of divine kingship.
• Art and Architecture : Ancient Egyptian art and architecture are renowned for their grandeur, symbolism, and meticulous craftsmanship. Research paper topics in this category could focus on various forms of artistic expression, such as sculpture, painting, and monumental architecture. Students could explore the iconic pyramids of Giza, the stunning murals and carvings found in tombs and temples, and the techniques and materials used in ancient Egyptian art. They could also investigate the symbolic significance of motifs, such as the ankh, the lotus flower, and the eye of Horus.
• Daily Life and Society : To gain a deeper understanding of ancient Egyptian society, it is essential to examine the daily life and experiences of its people. Research paper topics in this category might include the roles and responsibilities of men and women in ancient Egyptian society, the daily routines of people from different social classes, and the importance of agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship in sustaining the civilization. Students could also explore topics such as family life, education, and the social hierarchies that existed during this period.
• Trade and Economy : Ancient Egypt was a thriving center of economic activity, with a well-developed trade network that extended across the region. Topics in this category could explore trade routes, valuable commodities, economic systems, and the impact of foreign trade on the economy of ancient Egypt. Students could analyze the importance of the Nile River as a lifeline for transportation and trade, as well as the development of specialized industries, such as weaving, pottery, and metalworking.
• Science and Technology : Despite being an ancient civilization, the Egyptians made significant advancements in various scientific and technological fields. Research paper topics in this category might focus on ancient Egyptian medicine and healthcare practices, including the use of herbal remedies and surgical techniques. Students could explore advancements in astronomy and mathematics, such as the development of the calendar and the construction of monumental structures aligned with celestial events. They could also investigate engineering marvels, such as the irrigation systems that transformed the desert into fertile land, and the construction techniques employed in building pyramids and temples.
• Temples and Monuments : The temples and monuments of ancient Egypt stand as testaments to the religious and cultural practices of the time. Research paper topics in this category could include in-depth studies of specific temples, such as Karnak or Luxor, exploring their architectural features, religious significance, and the rituals performed within them. Students could also delve into the rock temples of Abu Simbel, the grandeur of the Valley of the Kings, and the enigmatic Sphinx, investigating their historical and cultural significance.
• Hieroglyphs and Writing Systems : Ancient Egypt is renowned for its hieroglyphic writing system, which played a vital role in communication, record-keeping, and religious texts. Research paper topics in this category could explore the development and decipherment of hieroglyphs, the use of writing in ancient Egyptian society, and the significance of texts such as the Book of the Dead. Students could also investigate other forms of writing, such as hieratic and demotic scripts, and examine the role of scribes in ancient Egyptian culture.
• Nubia and Egyptian Influence : The relationship between ancient Egypt and the neighboring region of Nubia presents an intriguing area of study. Research paper topics in this category could focus on the cultural exchange, trade relations, and military conflicts between the two civilizations. Students could explore the influence of Egyptian art, architecture, and religious practices on Nubian culture, as well as the impact of Nubian rulers on Egypt during the period of Kushite rule.
• Tombs and Burial Practices : Ancient Egyptian tombs provide valuable insights into the beliefs and practices surrounding death and the afterlife. Topics in this category could explore the construction and symbolism of tombs, the rituals and ceremonies associated with burial, and the role of mummification in preserving the body for the journey to the afterlife. Students could also investigate the treasures and artifacts discovered in tombs, such as the tomb of Tutankhamun, and analyze their cultural and historical significance.

The study of ancient Egypt offers a captivating journey into a civilization that continues to captivate our imagination. The comprehensive list of ancient Egypt research paper topics invites students to explore various aspects of this remarkable civilization, including its political structures, religious beliefs, artistic achievements, societal dynamics, and technological advancements. By delving into these topics, students can gain a deeper understanding of the ancient Egyptians’ contributions to human civilization and engage in the ongoing exploration and appreciation of this extraordinary culture.

Choosing Ancient Egypt Research Paper Topics

Choosing a research paper topic can be a challenging task, especially when it comes to a subject as vast and fascinating as ancient Egypt. To help you navigate through the wealth of possibilities, this section offers expert advice on selecting the most suitable research paper topic in the field of ancient Egyptian history. By considering these tips, you can narrow down your focus, identify compelling research questions, and embark on an engaging and insightful exploration of ancient Egypt.

• Define Your Area of Interest : Ancient Egypt encompasses a wide range of topics, from pharaohs and pyramids to art and religion. Begin by identifying your area of interest within the field. Are you intrigued by the political structures of ancient Egypt, or do you find the religious practices and mythology more captivating? Defining your area of interest will help you narrow down your options and choose a topic that truly engages you.
• Consider the Available Resources : Research paper topics require access to relevant and reliable sources of information. Before finalizing your topic, consider the availability of resources such as books, scholarly articles, museum collections, and online databases. Ensure that there is ample material to support your research and provide a solid foundation for your paper.
• Explore Unexplored Areas : While ancient Egypt has been extensively studied, there are still unexplored or lesser-known aspects that offer exciting research opportunities. Look for niche topics or specific aspects of ancient Egyptian history that have not received significant attention. By exploring these unexplored areas, you can contribute to the field with fresh insights and original research.
• Narrow Your Focus : Ancient Egypt is a vast subject, spanning thousands of years and encompassing various dynasties and periods. To create a focused and manageable research paper, narrow down your focus to a specific time period, dynasty, or theme. For example, you could examine the role of women in ancient Egyptian society during the New Kingdom or explore the religious reforms of Pharaoh Akhenaten. Narrowing your focus will allow for more in-depth analysis and a more coherent research paper.
• Identify Research Gaps : As you delve into existing literature on ancient Egypt, pay attention to research gaps or unanswered questions. These gaps provide fertile ground for original research and the opportunity to contribute new insights. Identify areas where further investigation is needed or where differing viewpoints exist. By addressing these gaps, you can add value to the scholarly discourse on ancient Egyptian history.
• Incorporate Interdisciplinary Perspectives : Ancient Egypt intersects with various disciplines, including archaeology, anthropology, art history, linguistics, and more. Consider incorporating interdisciplinary perspectives into your research paper. For example, you could analyze the archaeological evidence alongside textual sources to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a specific aspect of ancient Egyptian culture. Incorporating diverse perspectives will enrich your research and provide a well-rounded analysis.
• Analyze Primary and Secondary Sources : To develop a well-supported research paper, it is crucial to engage with both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include ancient Egyptian texts, inscriptions, and artifacts, while secondary sources encompass scholarly works, articles, and analyses. By critically evaluating primary and secondary sources, you can construct a robust argument based on evidence and scholarly interpretations.
• Consult with Your Instructor or Advisor : Seek guidance from your instructor or advisor throughout the topic selection process. They can provide valuable insights, suggest potential research directions, and offer recommendations based on their expertise. Collaborating with your instructor or advisor ensures that your chosen topic aligns with the academic requirements and expectations of your research paper.
• Balance Depth and Breadth : Striking a balance between depth and breadth is crucial when selecting an ancient Egypt research paper topic. Avoid ancient Egypt research paper topics that are too broad, as they can result in superficial analysis. Similarly, excessively narrow topics may limit the availability of sources and hinder your ability to develop a comprehensive argument. Aim for a topic that allows you to delve deeply into a specific aspect while maintaining a broader context.
• Follow Your Passion : Ultimately, choose a topic that ignites your passion and curiosity. When you are genuinely interested in the subject matter, your enthusiasm will shine through in your research and writing. Explore topics that resonate with your personal interests, academic goals, and career aspirations. By following your passion, you will be motivated to conduct thorough research, analyze the findings critically, and produce a compelling research paper.

Choosing the right research paper topic is a crucial step in conducting a successful study on ancient Egypt. By following these expert tips, you can navigate the vast landscape of ancient Egyptian history and select a topic that aligns with your interests, resources, and research goals. Remember to define your area of interest, consider available resources, explore unexplored areas, narrow your focus, identify research gaps, incorporate interdisciplinary perspectives, consult with your instructor, analyze primary and secondary sources, balance depth and breadth, and, above all, follow your passion. With these strategies in mind, you are well-equipped to embark on an engaging and enlightening exploration of ancient Egypt.

How to Write an Ancient Egypt Research Paper

Writing a research paper on ancient Egypt requires careful planning, thorough research, and effective organization. This section provides a step-by-step guide to help you navigate the process and develop a high-quality research paper that explores the fascinating world of ancient Egypt. From selecting a research question to polishing your final draft, these tips will assist you in crafting a well-structured and insightful paper.

• Select a Research Question : Begin by selecting a focused research question that will guide your study. Your question should be specific, clear, and relevant to the field of ancient Egyptian history. Consider the gaps in existing knowledge or unresolved debates within the discipline. Formulate a question that allows for in-depth analysis and generates new insights into the chosen topic.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : To build a strong foundation for your research paper, engage in comprehensive and scholarly research. Explore various sources, including books, academic journals, museum collections, and reputable online databases. Take notes, highlight key points, and critically evaluate the information gathered. Pay attention to different perspectives and interpretations to develop a well-rounded understanding of the topic.
• Create an Outline : Organize your research findings by creating a clear and logical outline for your research paper. An outline helps you structure your ideas, define the main sections of your paper, and maintain a coherent flow of information. Divide your paper into introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion, and allocate specific points or arguments to each section. This will serve as a roadmap for your writing process.
• Write a Compelling Introduction : The introduction is the first impression of your research paper. Begin with an attention-grabbing opening sentence that hooks the reader and introduces the importance of your research topic. Provide background information on ancient Egypt and its relevance to the research question. Clearly state your research objective and preview the main points or arguments that will be explored in the paper.
• Develop Strong Body Paragraphs : The body paragraphs are where you present your research findings, analysis, and supporting evidence. Each paragraph should focus on a specific aspect or argument related to your research question. Start each paragraph with a clear topic sentence that introduces the main idea. Support your arguments with relevant examples, citations from scholarly sources, and references to primary and secondary sources.
• Analyze and Interpret Evidence : As you present your research findings, analyze and interpret the evidence in a critical and scholarly manner. Evaluate primary and secondary sources, consider different viewpoints, and demonstrate your ability to draw informed conclusions. Use direct quotations, paraphrases, and summaries to incorporate evidence and citations into your paper. Avoid plagiarism by properly citing all sources used.
• Provide Historical Context : Ancient Egypt existed in a rich historical context with its own social, cultural, and political dynamics. Provide the necessary historical context to help readers understand the significance of your research topic. Explain relevant historical events, key figures, societal structures, and cultural practices that influenced ancient Egyptian history. This contextual information will enhance the readers’ understanding of your research.
• Utilize Visual Materials : Ancient Egypt is renowned for its visual arts, including intricate hieroglyphics, monumental architecture, and stunning artifacts. Incorporate visual materials such as images, diagrams, maps, or illustrations to supplement your written analysis. Visual materials can provide visual evidence, support your arguments, and engage readers in a more immersive exploration of ancient Egypt.
• Craft a Coherent Conclusion : The conclusion of your research paper should summarize your main findings, restate your thesis or research question, and provide a concise synthesis of your arguments. Reflect on the significance of your research in the context of ancient Egyptian history and its broader implications. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion and leave the reader with a sense of closure and satisfaction.
• Revise and Edit : Once you have completed the initial draft of your research paper, take the time to revise and edit it thoroughly. Review the structure, clarity, and coherence of your arguments. Check for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and formatting consistency. Ensure that your citations are accurate and properly formatted according to the chosen citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago/Turabian.

Writing an ancient Egypt research paper requires a systematic and thoughtful approach. By selecting a focused research question, conducting thorough research, creating an outline, and developing strong arguments, you can produce a well-crafted and insightful paper. Remember to provide historical context, analyze and interpret evidence, utilize visual materials, and conclude with a concise synthesis of your findings. With careful planning, diligent research, and effective writing techniques, you can showcase your knowledge and passion for ancient Egyptian history in a compelling research paper.

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• Expert Degree-Holding Writers : Our writing team consists of expert degree-holding writers with a strong background in history, particularly ancient Egyptian history. They possess comprehensive knowledge of the subject matter, ensuring that your research paper is written by someone with the expertise to deliver accurate and insightful content.
• Custom Written Works : We understand that each research paper is unique, and we tailor our writing to meet your specific requirements. Our writers will carefully analyze your instructions and develop a custom-written research paper that addresses your research question, adheres to academic standards, and reflects your individual style and voice.
• In-Depth Research : Research is at the core of any successful ancient Egypt research paper. Our writers are skilled researchers who delve deep into reputable sources to gather accurate and up-to-date information. They are proficient in navigating scholarly databases, academic journals, historical archives, and other reliable sources to ensure the highest level of research quality.
• Custom Formatting : Formatting your research paper according to the required citation style can be a daunting task. Our writers are well-versed in various formatting styles, including APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. They will meticulously adhere to the specified guidelines, ensuring that your paper meets the highest standards of academic formatting.
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Mythology Research Resources

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Mythology Fundamentals

Ancient and classical mythology, asian and oceanic mythology, african and middle eastern mythology, european mythology, mythology of the americas, additional resources for learning about mythology.

From time immemorial, human beings have attempted to answer their questions about the nature of the universe and life itself through storytelling. Myths unite us across lines of cultural difference, forming the framework by which people identify themselves and understand the wider world around them. As Joseph Campbell writes in   The Hero with a Thousand Faces , no matter how different myths are from people to people and from age to age, they all form “one, shape-shifting yet marvelously constant story that we find, together with a challengingly persistent suggestion of more remaining to be experienced than will ever be known or told” (1). This guide will provide you with websites, books, podcasts, and more that introduce the world of myth and invite deeper exploration into these fundamental stories.

The deceptively simple question, “what is mythology” produces a range of complex answers. Mythology is a category of human expression that defies uncomplicated definitions. While myths rest under the label of tradition or story or legend, they vary in their purpose and the manner in which they are told. Explore mythology’s roots and etymology through the resources below.

Mythology: Origins, Etymology, and Genre

The Wikipedia Mythology Portal

For a look at mythology in its broadest sense, visit the Wikipedia Mythology Portal. This resource links to articles on myths from around the world, and includes fun facts and featured articles and images.

"What Is Mythology?" (ThoughtCo)

This article from ThoughtCo explores the basic questions surrounding mythology, and outlines methods for study and interpretation.

CrashCourse Video: "Mythology" (YouTube)

Mike Rugnetta gives an overview of mythology in this introduction to the CrashCourse series on myth. You'll find many other CrashCourse videos, offering more specific and in-depth information, later in this guide.

Definition and Etymology of Mythology (Merriam Webster)

In this dictionary entry, learn how the roots of the word "mythology," from the Greek  mythos (story) and logos (word), emphasize its ties to oral tradition.

In Search of Myths and Heroes (PBS)

This video documentary series, hosted by Michael Wood, details some of the most well-known myths and heroes around the world. The Queen of Sheba, Shangri-La, King Arthur, and Jason and the Golden Fleece each get their own episode.

Mythology and Folklore Resources ( The Mythology Podcast )

The Mythology Podcast provides a list of resources for all things mythology and folklore, including directories, classic texts, and a blogroll.

Mythology and Folklore: Similarities and Differences

"The Meaning of Myths, Folklore, Legends, and Fairy Tales" (ThoughtCo)

Esther Lombardi parses out generic differences in this article. She explains that myths and folktales share roots in oral storytelling, but the scope of these stories is different. Myths tend to look at big-picture questions, whereas folklore is more localized.

"The Difference Between Myths, Legends, and Fairy Tales" (The Poetics Project)

Learn more about the differences and points of connection between myth and folktales, courtesy of this article from The Poetics Project.

Folktexts: Folklore and Mythology Electronic Texts (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This resource provides a repository of texts relating to myth and folklore, from A - Z. Among them, you'll find a Chinese Creation and Flood Myth from the Miao people, Blackfoot creation and origin myths, and Apuleius's Cupid and Psyche .

Before the scientific and technological advances of modern times could help explain natural phenomena, people turned to storytelling to understand the world around them. Famous tales from the ancient world have formed the basis for many works of literature and art up to the present day. From the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh to Ovid’s Metamorphoses, myths from  civilizations of the past have retained cultural relevance well into the twenty-first century. Learn more about myths from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome below.

Mesopotamian Mythology

"Mesopotamian Mythology: The Ancient Gods of Sumer and Babylon" (Godchecker)

Discover the Mesopotamian pantheon ("all the gods" pertaining to a certain culture) via the Godchecker website. Learn about the Epic of Gilgamesh, and discover the connection between Sumerian, Akkadian, and Mesopotamian gods.

"Mesopotamian Mythology" (Ancient-Mythology.com)

Learn more about the interaction between gods and heroes in ancient Mesopotamian myth with this website, which links to articles on Abgal, Nabu, Zu, and more.

LitCharts Study Guide for The Epic of Gilgamesh

This LitCharts Study Guide will help you get to know the most famous piece of writing from Mesopotamia. Among its many sections are resources on context, both quick-reference and detailed plot summaries, and an interactive theme wheel. 

"Great Myths and Legends: Adapa the Sage" (Univ. of Pennsylvania via YouTube)

Dr. Stephen J. Tinney presents a video lecture on flood mythology in Mesopotamia. The information presented is made possible through the recently-published text of ancient fragmentary tablets.

CrashCourse Video: "Ancient Mediterranean Pantheons" (YouTube)  

Learn more about the Sumerian deities in a continuation of Mike Rugnetta’s program on ancient Mediterranean gods.

In Our Time: The Epic of Gilgamesh (BBC)

Melvyn Bragg hosts a radio program on The Epic of Gilgamesh  with guests from leading UK universities. Learn how the tablets containing the story were gradually discovered, reassembled, and translated. 

Egyptian Mythology

Egyptian Collection: Gods and Goddesses (The British Museum)

Discover the ancient Egyptian pantheon through the British Museum’s extensive collection of artifacts devoted to the deities.

"Gods of Egypt" (Tour Egypt)

Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism presents a comprehensive web guide to ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses. You'll find pages on Aken (Ferryman of the underworld), Mut (Grandmother of the Gods), Wadjet (the serpent goddess), and many others.

The History of Egypt Podcast

This podcast's many episodes allow you to uncover Egypt’s history up to the fall of Rome, and how it intertwines with "pyramids, pharaohs, gods, and mysteries."

"11 Most Popular Myths in Ancient Egypt" (Ancientfacts.net)

This article guides you through the most popular myths of ancient Egypt, beginning with the myth of creation and ending with the Cinderella-like tale of the Girl with Rose-red slippers.

"Ancient Egyptian Mythology" ( Ancient History Encyclopedia )

Joshua Mark outlines Egyptian mythology’s structures and stories as they relate to history and society. He begins with a helpfully detailed "definition" of Egyptian mythology.

Greek and Roman Mythology

Course on the Ancient Greek Hero (edX)

Delve deeply into the myths of Greek heroes in this 17-week free online course, co-sponsored by Harvard and taught by professors from Harvard and Brandeis.

Wikipedia Article on Greek Mythology

This article provides a broad overview of ancient Greek myths, from literary and archaeological sources to modern interpretations.

In Our Time : "The Greek Myths" (BBC)

Melvyn Bragg hosts a radio program on Greek myths, "from Achilles to Zeus," with guests from leading UK universities. Learn about Penelope's shroud, Arachne's presumption, and Cerberus the three-headed dog.

GreekMythology.com  

The first website devoted exclusively to Greek myth, GreekMythology.com has operated since 1997. The site provides resources on nearly every individual god, Titan, or mortal involved in Greek mythology, and includes information on films and books which serve as a broad introduction to the topic.

Class on Greek and Roman Mythology (Coursera)

With this open online course, you can delve into the stories that comprise Greek and Roman myth with Professor Peter Struck of the University of Pennsylvania.

The Roman Empire: "Mythology" (PBS)

This article, which accompanies the PBS series on the history of ancient Rome, outlines ancient Roman myth and religious belief.

Wikipedia Article on Roman Mythology

Wikipedia offers an overview of Roman myths and religious practice. Learn about Rome's founding myth and interactions with foreign gods.

CrashCourse Video: "Greek and Roman Pantheons" (YouTube)

Watch and learn about the deities of ancient Greece and Rome with this CrashCourse video. It addresses origin stories, family relationships, and each god's "specialty."

Myths and History of Greece and Rome Podcast

This podcast overs well over 100 episodes, in which host Paul Vincent discusses the intersection between myth and history in ancient Greece and Rome.

The nations comprising Asia and Oceania are home to diverse peoples with distinct mythologies, grounded in the unique natural landscapes of the region. Some Chinese myths involve floods, while Polynesian legends tell of volcanic eruption and island formation. Further, religion and indigenous spiritual practice have influenced myths from Asia and Oceania. These include Hindu mythology in India and the Aboriginal belief in the prehistoric golden age of Dreamtime.

Indian Mythology

Wikipedia Hindu Mythology Portal

Wikipedia provides a sweeping overview of Hindu and Indian mythology and legend. You can learn about anything from demons to weapons to eschatology.

Hindu Texts (Internet Sacred Text Archive)

Read texts about the Hindu deities in English translation. This archive contains links to each of the four Vedas, the primary texts of Hinduism.

"East vs. West—The Myths that Mystify" (TED Talk)

Devdutt Pattanaik investigates the differences between Indian and Western myths, and suggests how these differences influence belief systems.

Indianmythology.com

Stories of Hindu deities and Indian epics are available in English and Hindi in this repository of mythic stories. You'll also find links to information about Indian temples.

CrashCourse Video: "Indian Pantheons" (YouTube)

Mike Rugnetta continues his exploration of mythic pantheons with this video on Indian gods. He focuses on stories that were written in Sanskrit.

Indian Mythology Archive ( The Mythology Podcast )

Learn more about the Ramayana, the Hindu goddess Kali, and monkey god Hanuman with these Mythology Podcast episodes.

Chinese Mythology

E.T.C. Werner's Myths and Legends of China (Project Gutenburg)

Read Werner’s influential and in-depth volume on Chinese mythology, first published in 1915. Learn about the goddess of mercy, the guardian of the gate of heaven, and many other stories.

Barbara Laban’s "Top 10 Chinese Myths" (The Guardian)

Author Barbara Laban shares her favorite Chinese myths in this article from The Guardian , from Sun WuKong the monkey king to the Chinese zodiac.

CrashCourse Video: "Flood Stories from China" (YouTube)

Mike Rugnetta teaches about Chinese flood stories in this CrashCourse video. He tells the story of Yu, an ancient engineer and mythical ruler.

"Chinese Myths and Legends" (Shen Yun Performing Arts)

The famous Chinese performance troupe Shen Yun provides a website with information on ancient Chinese legends.

"Chinese Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Explore Chinese mythological views on the ten suns, twelve moons, and story of creation on the Windows to the Universe website.

Japanese and Korean Mythology

"Mythology on the Japanese Main Island" (Shimane Prefecture)

Myths that came from the Shimane area of Japan, which is located on the main Honshu island, are explored on this website.

"Korean Mythological Gods and Stories" (Study.com)

Study.com provides an overview of Korean deities and legends. You'll learn about the mix of "shamanism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and various local myths" that inform the fluid Korean mythology.

"Japanese Mythology: 5 Ancient Myths and Legends" (Takelessons.com)

Explore five essential points of ancient Japanese mythology with this site. Included here are the Japanese creation myth, Amaterasu and the cave, Hare of Inaba, the legend of Emperor Jimmu, and more.

"Yokai" (The Mythology Podcast)

Discover one of the supernatural creatures of Japanese myth— the yokai—with The Mythology Podcast. In this episode, you'll encounter "human-headed trees, fox weddings, a trip to the underworld, and enchanted umbrellas." 

The Dangun Myth and Foundation Day ( Korea Today via YouTube)

Watch this video to learn about the mythical founding of Korea. The Dangun myth stars Korea's legendary founder, the son of the Prince of the heavens and a woman who was once a bear.

Australian and Polynesian Mythology

"Australian Aboriginal Creation Stories" (National Geographic)

This article, which accompanies Morgan Freeman's National Geographic documentary The Story of God , details creation myths of the Aboriginal Australian people.

"The Gods of Aboriginal Australia" (Godchecker)

Godchecker's introduction to the Aboriginal Australian gods includes an A - Z index, a section on the mythological golden age of Dreamtime, and tracks the latest popular Australian deities based on webpage hits.

"Maui and the Creation of the Islands" (PBS)

This video, presented by Tom Cummings of Hawaii's Bishop Museum and featuring the storyteller Kealoha Kelekolio, relays information on the Hawaiian creation myth. 

"Hawaiian Myths Tell A Story About Volcanic Activity at Kilauea" ( Forbes )

Discover how mythology interprets volcanic activity in Hawaii through this Forbes  article. You'll learn about a volcanic fight between two mythological sisters, Pele and Hi'iaka.

"Mythology of the Polynesian Islands" (Window to the Universe)

Explore legends of the Maori people, Hawai’i, and Rapa Nue (Easter) Island via the Windows to the Universe Website. You'll meet the creator god Makemake, the Maori Sky Father Rangi, and many others.

From deserts to jungles, the African continent is composed of vastly diverse geographical climates and landscapes. The mythology of the continent reflects that diversity. The populations of the Middle East, located across the Mediterranean from North Africa, also developed wide-ranging belief systems. In this section, you'll encounter myths influenced by Judaism, Islam, and Zoroastrianism.

African Mythology

CrashCourse Video: "African Pantheons and the Orishas" (YouTube)

This CrashCourse video introduces you to the deities of the Yoruba people of western Africa. It gives particular attention to the Orisha spirits.

"The Gods of Africa" (Godchecker)

Godchecker provides a list of African deities, tracing similarities and differences among the pantheons of different cultures and tribes across the continent.

Dictionary of African Mythology (Oxford Reference)

Oxford Reference hosts a dictionary of African mythology by Harold Scheub. Though full access to the text requires a subscription, you’ll be able to search abstracts and titles of legends in alphabetical organization, and connect deities and stories to specific tribes and countries.

"West African Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

This webpage offers an introduction to the mythology of the Yoruba and Fon people. Learn about Shango, the Yoruba deity of thunder and lightning, and many others.

"Top 10 African Myths" ( The African Exponent )

African myths, ranging from the story of the Zambezi River God to the creation of the world, are collected in this article from online news outlet The African Exponent .

"Yoruba Myth, Folklore, and the Orishas" (The Mythology Podcast)

Listen to this podcast for an introduction to Yoruba religion and mythology. You'll learn about the culture's connection to divination, and learn about some of the Orishas in the Yoruba pantheon.

Arabian, Islamic, and Iranian Mythology

Radio Programs on Arabian Mythology (BBC)

In a series of radio programs hosted by the BBC, you can listen and learn about touchstones of Arabian myth, from jinn to the One Thousand and One Nights .

Wikipedia Article on "Islamic Mythology"

Wikipedia’s entry on Islamic mythology discusses the supernatural events, beings, and sacred places that figure in the Qur'an.    

"Iranian Mythology: Gods and Goddesses" (Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies)

This post from the Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies offers brief descriptions of each god and goddess in the Persian pantheon, from Agas (demoness of illness) to Zurvan (god of infinite time and space). 

Video on Zoroastrianism (Khan Academy)

This video details the rise of the ancient Iranian religion Zoroastrianism. You'll encounter Zarathustra, Ahura Mazda, and the Avesta.

Jewish Mythology

Wikipedia Article on "Jewish Mythology"

The Wikipedia entry on Jewish mythology provides a good point of departure for further exploration. Learn about the creation myth in Genesis (which is shared with Christianity), and find links to separate articles on Jewish apocrypha, Merkabah mysticism, and more.

"Eight Fascinating Jewish Myths" (BeliefNet.com)

This article provides an overview of mythology associated with Judaism, from golem to Solomon’s vampire. Learn about the many sources for Jewish myth, from the Talmud to Kabbalistic literature.

"Solomon’s Ring" ( Myths and Legends Podcast )

In this podcast, hear the story of King Solomon’s magical ring. Purportedly a gift from God, the ring allowed him to control demons and had quite a few other impressive powers, too. 

"Turning to the Angels to Save Jewish Mythology" ( Ha'aretz )

Read about the legend of the Watchers and the mythology of angels in this article from an Israeli newspaper, which connects Judaic myth with the wider world of the ancient Middle East.

Mythology from the Northern climes features snow queens and fae, cattle raids and golden eggs. Here, you can find information on some of the most influential myths of the European continent and the British isles. You'll discover tensions and continuities between ancient, pagan myths and the Christian tradition which dominated the region from the Middle Ages onward.        

Russian and Slavic Mythology          

"5 Most Popular Tales from Slavic Mythology" (Slavorum)

Familiarize yourself with popular Slavic myths through this article. You'll learn about the god Rod, who came to earth in a golden egg, and why the lord of darkness Chernobog wanted to capture the universe.

"The Gods of Slavic Mythology" (Godchecker)

Here, Godchecker provides information on the pantheons of Russia and Eastern Europe. The A - Z index will introduce you to Baba-Yaga, Mikula, Zorya and more.

"What is Known About Slavic Mythology" (Culture.pl)

This article presents a broad overview of deities and myths from across Eastern Europe. Learn about Perun, the most important god in the Slavic pantheon, and his many incarnations.

"Russian and Slavic Mythological Creatures" (Study.com)

Learn about spirits and creatures featured in Russian and Slavic myths via Study.com. The article introduces both single-figure creatures and spirits.

Celtic Mythology

"The Gods of Celtic Mythology" (Godchecker)

Learn more about the ancient Celtic pantheon through Godchecker. You'll read about the power of the Druids, and meet "megalithic military mother goddess" Morrigan.

"Irish Mythology" (Luminarium)

Let Luminarium introduce you to Ireland’s ancient Celtic deities and heroes, from the legendary heroes Fionn mac Cumhail and Cú Chulainn to the gods Danu and Dagda.

"Celtic Mythology: The Mythological Cycles" (Sacredfire.net)

This webpage offers information about the different mythic story-cycles, along with an introduction to some of the more famous Celtic tales like Tain bo Cualinge.

The Celts Documentary: "Sacred Groves" (BBC)  

The third episode in the BBC's series on the Celts focuses on Celtic mythology and its relation to the pagan religious practice of Druidism.

Norse Mythology

"Viking and Norse Mythology" (History on the Net)

A collection of information on Norse gods and creatures, from giants to land spirits, is available on this website. Learn about Freya and Baldur, along with Yggdrasil and the nine worlds.

CrashCourse Video: "The Norse Pantheon" (YouTube)

Meet the Norse gods Loki, Thor, Freya, Odin and more in this video. CrashCourse recommends that you watch this video before Ragnorok, as it may not be available when the universe ends.

In Our Time : "The Norse Gods" (BBC)

Here, host Melvyn Bragg moderates a conversation on the Norse pantheon. Learn about Valhalla, Thor and his hammer, and an all-important ash tree.

The Norse Mythology Blog

Dr. Karl Seigfried blogs here about Norse religion and mythology. You'll find posts on everything from mythology's influence on current events to shield-maidens.

"Norse Gods and Goddesses" (Mythologian.net)

In this post, delve into stories of Norse gods and goddesses and their rise and fall to Ragnarok (“the twilight of the gods”).

Ancient Native American tribes held many different beliefs about the nature of the universe in North America. Meanwhile, in South America, native peoples such as the Aztec and Inca had their own visions of gods and the wider world around them. Spanning two continents, mythology of the Americas varies as widely as the rainforests, plains, and tundra in which they were formed.

Mythology of the Indigenous Peoples of North America

Wikipedia Article on "Mythologies of Indigenous Peoples of North America"

The Wikipedia portal to Native American mythology is organized by tribe and region for a comprehensive introduction to pantheons and legends.

"Inuit Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

The Windows to the Universe site provides information on Inuit myths. Here, you'll be introduced to the Inuit deities of the sun, moon, and sea.

"Mythology of North American Indians" (Windows to the Universe)

Here, you can find introductions to myths of the Algonquin, Pawnee, Navajo, and Lakota tribes. Learn about the Algonquian tribe's many names for the full moon, and the connection between coyotes and the Milk Way in Navajo myth. 

Native American Mythology Resource Guide (Touro College)

The Touro College library provides an introductory resource guide to Native American myth, including book selections and web resources.

Central and South American Mythology

"Aztec Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Windows to the Universe lays out Aztec myths related to celestial deities and planets. Learn about the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui and the sun god Huitzilopochtli.       

"Aztec Creation Myth: The Legend of the Fifth Sun" (ThoughtCo)

Did you know the Aztecs believed their world had been created and destroyed four times before? In this ThoughtCo article, read about the Aztecs’ calendar, mythology, and their vision of the world’s creation.

Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian: "The Creation Story of the Maya" (YouTube)

Watch this short Smithsonian video about the Popol Vuh, the book detailing the Mayan creation story. You'll discover tales of the Hero Twins and the creation of the sky.

"Mythology of the Mayas" (Windows to the Universe)

The Mayans’ mythological understanding of the planets and elements is described here. Learn about how the Mayans' detailed astronomical knowledge informed their mythology.

"The Gods of Mayan Mythology" (Godchecker)

Godchecker introduces the Mayan pantheon here. Discover information on Cabrakan (God of the mountains), the hero twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque, and the World-tree.

"Amazon Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Windows to the Universe uncovers the mythology of the Mamaiurans, an Amazon Indian people living in Brazil. You'll learn about the moon god Iae, and why the Mamaiurans had to share daylight with the king of the birds.

"The Gods of South America" (Godchecker)

Like other Godchecker pages, this introduction to the gods of Brazil, Peru, and Chile includes an A - Z index of gods and a list of the latest popular deities. 

"Inca Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Explore Incan mythology of the sun and earth on this webpage. You'll find brief introductions to the generous sun god Inti and his wife Pachamama.

"Incan Mythology: The Golden Gods of the Andes" (Godchecker)

Godchecker provides an introduction to the Incan deities. Meet the potato goddess Axomamma, and discover how the health goddess Cocomamma met an unfortunate end.

Resources for Teaching Mythology

Sharing mythology from around the globe with students allows them to appreciate unique stories and connect cross-cultural ideas, and also helps them understand the origins of literature, history, and the arts.  With the following tools, you can create lesson plans and find inspiration for assignments and assessments.        

Teaching Tips from Mythweb

Ideas for creative writing assignments and etymological explorations abound in this aggregated list of lesson plans and activities to teach students about mythology.

"Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

This resource from the National Earth Science Teachers Association draws comparisons between mythology and the natural world. You can delve into specific myths about planets and astrological phenomena, family trees of deities, and myths by region.

MythFun.com

The Myth Man’s website provides a colorful spin on Greek myth, telling stories of heroes, gods, and creatures alongside a look at mythology’s influence on contemporary life. It also offers two mythology quizzes.

"Myths, Folktales, and Fairy Tales": Teacher’s Activity Guide (Scholastic)

Well-known publisher Scholastic has collaborated with authors to create resources that inspire students to learn about and write their own larger-than-life stories.

Mythologyteacher.com

English teacher Zak Hamby has compiled a website of teaching materials and sample lesson plans for educators looking to teach Greek, Roman, and Norse myths to their students.

ArtsEdge: "Myths and Heroes" (The Kennedy Center)

Nested under ArtsEdge's "Myths and Heroes" section, you'll find lesson plans about myths for students from fifth through twelfth grades.

"Folktales, Fairytales and Mythology" (National Endowment for the Humanities)

Several back-to-school lesson plans and resources are available courtesy of the NEH, including one on Greek mythology and another on "Navigating Ancient Worlds."

Teacher Resources in Latin, Greek, Mythology and Classics (American Classical League)

The ACL provides information on teaching tools, resources, and links on the classical world for educators and students alike. You'll need to create an account to access the content.

Mythology resources (Teachers Pay Teachers)

Search for lesson plans and assessments on mythology, created by teachers for teachers, for varying grade levels. You'll find entire unit plans along with individual activities.

The resources below will help you delve deeper into the world of mythology, inside or outside of the classroom.  Fundamental texts in the study of mythology are covered here, along with podcasts and encyclopedias to empower you to discover new myths.

A Complete Encyclopedia of Myths and Legends

This alphabetized online encyclopedia contains A - Z entries on characters and tropes from myths worldwide. You'll find entries on trees in mythology, the  Bhagavad Gita , Micronesian mythology, and much more.

Encyclopedia Mythica (Pantheon.org)

Encyclopedia Mythica provides over 7,000 web articles relating to myths from around the globe, organized by geographical region and special interest content areas.

Mythology Podcasts (PlayerFM)

PlayerFM has aggregated an up-to-date list of the best mythology podcasts, including Jason Weisner’s popular Myths and Legends .

LitCharts Study Guide to Margaret Hamilton’s Mythology

Explore Hamilton’s famous 1942 book, which serves as a comprehensive introduction to the Greek, Roman, and Norse gods, with this LitCharts study guide.

Bulfinch’s Mythology Online (Project Gutenberg)  

Access Thomas Bulfinch’s formative work on mythology, first published in 1867. It's available in several electronic formats via Project Gutenberg.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Egypt in the old kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 b.c.).

Wall tiles from the funerary apartments of king Djoser

West wall of the chapel of Nikauhor and Sekhemhathor

False door from the tomb of Metjetji

The King's Acquaintances Memi and Sabu

King Sahure Accompanied by a Divine Figure

Nikare with his Wife and Daughter

Nikare as a scribe

Striding Figure

Sistrum Inscribed with the Names of King Teti

Two Vases in the Shape of a Mother Monkey with her Young

Kneeling captive

Corner of niche from the tomb of Akhtihotep

Statue of Tjeteti in middle age

Statue of Tjeteti as a young man

Tara Prakash Department of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

February 2019

The Old Kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 B.C.) was an incredibly dynamic period of Egyptian history. While the origin of many concepts, practices, and monuments can be traced to earlier periods, it was during the Old Kingdom that they developed into the forms that would characterize and influence the rest of pharaonic history. A number of broad artistic, historical, and religious trends distinguished this period. Yet, the specific elements and manifestations of these overarching commonalities changed dramatically over time, and the end of the Old Kingdom differed remarkably from the beginning. Although several important settlement sites provide some insight into everyday life, our knowledge of Old Kingdom material culture is largely based on funerary evidence.

Dynasty 3 (ca. 2649–2575 B.C.) Dynasty 3 began with king Netjerikhet (r. ca. 2649–2630 B.C.), who would later be called Djoser. Djoser’s funerary complex at Saqqara exemplifies the notable architectural and cultural developments that occurred during his reign. This was the earliest stone structure in Egypt, and at its center stood Egypt’s first pyramid, the Step Pyramid. The complex consisted of multiple cult buildings and an enormous series of underground apartments within a large rectangular enclosure that was oriented from north to south ( 48.160.1 ). Symbolically, it aligned the deceased king with the circumpolar stars and the gods, enabled him to eternally celebrate the rituals of kingship, and provided a place for his funerary cult to be performed.

Dynasty 3 high officials built mud-brick rectangular superstructures, known today as mastabas, above their tombs in Saqqara, continuing the practice of the previous dynasty. In many of these, what had before been offering niches were enlarged into small chapels that were lined with stone and decorated. An offering scene, which depicted the tomb owner seated before a table of bread, with lists of food and other provisions, was usually depicted inside the chapel. This scene magically provided for the deceased in the afterlife, thus guaranteeing his continued existence. Such scenes were ubiquitous for the remainder of Egyptian history ( 08.201.2a–g ; 64.100 ).

Dynasty 4 (ca. 2575–2465 B.C.) Pyramid building reached its height during early Dynasty 4. Snefru (r. ca. 2575–2551 B.C.), who had three massive pyramids constructed in Meidum and Dahshur, transformed the stepped pyramid into a true, smooth-sided one. The Great Pyramid at Giza, which is the largest Egyptian pyramid, belongs to his son and successor, Khufu (r. ca. 2551–2528 B.C.). Around this time, the basic elements of the pyramid complex became standardized. These were aligned along an east-west axis and included the pyramid itself in the west marking the king’s tomb; the pyramid temple (also sometimes referred to as the funerary temple or the mortuary temple), which was directly adjacent to the east side of the pyramid; the valley temple in the east and at the edge of cultivation; and the causeway, which connected the temples and led from the cultivation toward the pyramid in the desert.

While these elements were reproduced with remarkable consistency throughout the rest of the Old Kingdom, the plan of each element could vary widely. The walls of the temples and causeway were covered with painted reliefs, and multiple statues were placed inside. Particularly during the reigns of Khafre (ca. 2520–2494 B.C.) and Menkaure (ca. 2490–2472 B.C.), who built the other two pyramids at Giza, there seems to have been great interest in royal statuary, as both kings had many statues set in their monuments. With smooth, fleshy faces and muscular bodies, their images epitomize the highly idealized artistic style of Dynasty 4 and early Dynasty 5 ( 58.123 ; 48.111 ; 08.201.2a–g ; 18.2.4 ).

The changes in the layout and structure of the royal funerary complex reflected the sun god’s increased prominence and evolving beliefs of kingship. The pyramid was a solar symbol, thought to mimic the sacred benben stone in Heliopolis, where the solar cult was centered. The close relationship between the king and the sun god was further emphasized in a new royal epithet that asserted the king as the sun god’s son. The king was essentially a living god, who held all power and was at the apex of a highly stratified society. Indeed, the administration was extremely centralized, and most top-level high officials were close relatives of the king, often his own sons. Many officials were buried within two vast cemeteries of stone mastabas that the state planned out and constructed around Khufu’s pyramid, and their afterlife may have been dependent on the king’s.

Dynasty 5 (ca. 2465–2323 B.C.) The solar cult’s importance continued to increase during early Dynasty 5. Six kings had sun temples in Abusir. This was a new type of monument that these kings built in addition to their pyramid complexes. While the worship of the sun god was the primary purpose of these temples, they were also closely connected to the cult of the deceased, and possibly the living, king.

Already by the reign of Menkaure, pyramid size had declined and become less significant. During Dynasties 5 and 6, kings invested in other aspects of their monuments, particularly the decoration of the associated temples, which became larger. The pyramid complex of Sahure (r. ca. 2458–2446 B.C.) is particularly well preserved and offers an excellent example of the types of reliefs that usually covered the temple walls. These depicted the king triumphing over foreign enemies, interacting with deities, and receiving long lines of offering bearers.

In the middle of Dynasty 5, several major social and cultural changes mark an important turning point in Old Kingdom history. For example, the wealth and power of high officials seem to have increased around this time. Unlike during the previous dynasty, Dynasty 5 high officials were usually drawn from elite private families, and the increased size of their mastabas reflect their growing influence. These tomb complexes, erected in Saqqara, Giza, and Abusir, had more rooms, expanded relief decoration with new scene types, and multiple statues of the deceased representing him in different compositions, poses, or materials ( 52.19 ; 48.67 ). Scenes of daily life, which could depict hunting, agricultural activities, or butchering, became extremely common and ensured that the deceased successfully transitioned to and was provided for in the afterlife ( 08.201.2a–g ).

The artistic style changed dramatically toward the end of Dynasty 5, and this is likely linked to other contemporaneous cultural developments. The expressionistic late Old Kingdom style, or the so-called Second Style, which features large eyes, slightly upturned lips, narrow shoulders, and a lack of musculature, was common throughout Dynasty 6 ( 64.100 ; 64.260 ).

By the end of Dynasty 5, the cult of the new god Osiris had gained momentum. The last two kings chose not to build sun temples, and the royal cemetery was moved back to Saqqara. Perhaps most significantly, Unis (r. ca. 2353–2323 B.C.) had Pyramid Texts carved on the walls of the funerary apartments inside his pyramid. Although these texts and spells include solar and stellar references, the Osirian religion is dominant, and thus they epitomize the decline in the prominence of the sun god and the rise of Osiris within the funerary realm.

Dynasty 6 (ca. 2323–2150 B.C.) and the End of the Old Kingdom The funerary apartments of all subsequent Old Kingdom kings were inscribed with Pyramid Texts, and by the end of Dynasty 6, queens’ pyramids had them as well. This is one sign of the changing role of the king, which further evolved over Dynasty 6 as the men and women who surrounded him became increasingly wealthy and powerful. Both Pepi I (r. ca. 2289–2255 B.C.) and Pepi II (r. ca. 2246–2152 B.C.) seem to have married an unusually large number of women, probably between six and eight, with many being from outside the royal family. At the same time, the status of kings’ wives seems to have increased. Their funerary temples became larger and more complex, and they could be buried under pyramids, a practice that had formerly been limited to queen mothers.

The state’s interest in the provinces grew throughout Dynasty 6, and the wealth and influence that had previously been localized among high officials at the capital spread across the country as the prominence of officials residing in and governing the provinces increased. By the reign of Merenre I (ca. 2255–2246 B.C.), many of these men were choosing to be buried there, often in rock-cut tombs. While Upper Egyptian officials had used this type of architecture before, the size and decoration of late Dynasty 6 provincial tombs was greatly expanded. Scholars debate whether this trend was a sign of a weak central government with high officials acting on their own outside of the king’s grasp, or part of the state’s effort to extend its authority by sending agents to establish its presence in the countryside. However, to some degree, it could reflect a gradual decline in central power and influence during Dynasty 6 even as the state maintained control over these regions and attempted to exploit provincial resources.

Effectively, the last king of Dynasty 6 was Pepi II, who, according to tradition, ruled for more than ninety years. Though recent scholars have questioned this, his reign was undoubtedly long, and it is often cited as a primary reason for the subsequent breakdown of the central government. Yet, while dynastic issues may have played a role in the collapse of the Old Kingdom, there were many contributing factors, including increasing decentralization, provincial policies, growing hostility and pressure from Nubian populations to the south, and climate change and the desiccation of the region. Several ephemeral kings followed Pepi II and comprise Dynasties 7 and 8 (ca. 2152–2100 B.C.), but the degree to which the capital retained control of the rest of the country during this time is debatable. As the governors of the provinces became autonomous, the Old Kingdom came to an end.

Prakash, Tara. “Egypt in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 B.C.) .” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/oking/hd_oking.htm (February 2019)

Further Reading

Arnold, Dorothea, Krzysztof Grzymski, and Christiane Ziegler, eds. Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999. See on MetPublications

Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids . London: Thames & Hudson, 2008.

Malek, Jaromir. In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Egypt during the Old Kingdom . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986.

Robins, Gay. The Art of Ancient Egypt . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997.

Verner, Miroslav. Abusir: The Necropolis of the Sons of the Sun . Cairo: American University in Cairo, 2017.

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World Mythology (HUM 1015)

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Below you will find common mythic themes and elements for certain world mythologies. Also included are some ideas for research paper topics for each culture. You will notice that some mythic themes and elements are common across different cultures and mythologies (for example Greek and Roman).  

Note:   The following information can be found using the Gale Virtual Reference Library Philosophy & Religion database provided under the  Database and Internet Links   tab, and the course study outline available in the Start Here!  tab. 

Universal Themes

Common Universal Themes in World Mythology

Creation and the Ordering of the Cosmos/Reality Afterlife and immortality Gender Roles - social roles and ideals  Deities - relation to the divine, nature Acquisition of Fire/Technology Geophysical Phenomenon (e.g. Flood or Apocalyptic myths; Time)

Common Themes in Greek Mythology:

-Obedience to a higher being or beings

-Human behavior; explaining consequences of good and bad behavior

-Relationships between men and women to one another

-War and military honor; Creation of Heroes

-explaining the destructive forces of natural disasters

-passage of time and life, including the afterlife

Paper Ideas:

- A potter creating artistic pots depicting the relationship between Zeus and Athena, or other characters from Greek mythology.(Why are you depicting that scene; what does the myth mean to you?)

- A home owner, with a family, and a stranger come to the home asking for shelter (Xenos, Theos)

- A Greek solider explaining his experience during the Trojan War

- A young Greek person has a dream about crossing the River Styx and seeing a deceased relative (describe the journey, how did you get to the underworld, did you meet other characters from Greek mythology there?)

Common Themes in Roman Mythology: 

-Celebration of Virtues (Honor, Bravery, Self-Sacrifice, and piety) 

-Gods and Goddess represent Virtue (deities do not possess the same human-like weaknesses and vices)

-War and Military Honor 

-Founding of Rome (Romulus and Remus story)

- A roman general speaks to his troops before a major battle (explain how the deities might favor those who demonstrate virtues listed above)

- Comparison of Greek and Roman Gods and/or Goddesses from the perspective of a Roman scholar

- You are an advisor to an Emperor of Rome, and have been tasked with explaining ways to honor the gods and goddess with a ceremony or festival  

India/Hindu

Common Themes in India/Hindu Mythology:

Importance of nature (sacred Animals, Trees, and mountains for example)

Eschatology,Death, Reincarnation of the soul

Ritualistic festivals and devotion to gods and goddesses

- Parents explain why good behavior is important to a child (Dharma, reincarnation ) 

- A village elder explains the significance of a sacred Tree within the village

- a young person talks about the forms of Vishnu, and how they see Vishnu in their daily lives, to a sibling. 

Common Themes in Norse Mythology: 

- Bravery/courage while facing a harsh fate

-Impending destruction of man and deities

-struggle between good and evil 

- focus on nature (fire, ice, trees, rainbows are all natural elements that appear in Norse Mythology)

- Creation of Sagas to honor ancestors 

Paper Ideas: 

- An elder member of a Viking family writes a saga describing the heroic efforts of a late family member

- You are part of the valkyries, and are selecting fallen warriors to enter Valhalla ( explain why a certain warrior makes it in to Valhalla, while another may be left out)

North American

Common Themes in North American Mythology:

-Bridge the gap between hunter/gatherer culture and settlement culture

-Varied beliefs according to unique history of events and geographic relationships

-Animal Spirits (e.g. Buffalos, wolves, rabbits are different types of animal spirits that appear in North American mythologies). 

-Origin stories (Commonalities in stories due to mass migration across Bering Straight and later spreading of tribes across North America)

-Sacred pieces; pipes, drums, robes, 

-Gender roles (e.g. Buffalo Woman & Handsome Stranger 

- You are a young warrior sent on a vision quest; describe what you are doing, and how it relates to the mythology of your culture, why is your vision quest important? 

- As a Navajo elder, you must explain the significance of the four sacred mountains of the Navajo and how the Navajo came to be.  

- You are a Creek woman explaining the story of the Lucky Hunter and the Corn Woman to your children (Creek Indian creation myth).

- You are a Ute Indian tribesman, and you spotted a wolf and a coyote while wondering your territory.  Explain the symbolism that these two creatures mean to your tribe.  Is it good or bad that you saw these two animals? Should you be concerned at the sight of a wolf or coyote? 

Meso-American

Common Themes in Meso-American Mythologies:

-Developed stable and sophisticated cultures early (as compared to Europe and China for example)

-astronomical observation and creation of complex calendars; movements of planets tracked (e.g. Venus) 

-architecture ( pyramid builders)

-The mystery and mists of time; development of corn

-The use of slaves

-Human sacrifice

-The Green Man (The maintenance of the cycle of nature)

- You are a member of the Mayan civilization.  Explain the significance of your birth date, does the date have any baring on the outcome of your life or your fate? 

- As a high priest in the Mayan culture, you must keep the deities happy and appeased.  What rituals and practices do you use, and why is this beneficial for your culture? ( NOTE : a paper like this can be graphic, please do not focus your paper on graphic or inappropriate images and themes.  Human sacrifice and bloodletting are examples of practices that occurred in Meso-American cultures, do not include graphic details of these practices, but instead explain how and why such rituals were practiced in these civilizations .)

- You are an Aztec elder and want to explain the origins of the civilization to a young family member.  You explain the 4 suns (or worlds) that came before your time, and explain their significance to the civilization. 

Common Themes in Egyptian Mythology

-Creation Myth (e.g. World, Ennead of Heliopolis,)

-Afterlife ( i.e. Myths of Osiris, Book of the Dead, mummies & pyramids )

-Numerous cults and rituals to deities (e.g. Cult of Isis ) 

-Solar Myths; Sun deities and the cycle of their daily movement

-The idea of Order ( ma at )- reflecting notions of truth, cooperation and Justice

-The influence of Egyptian Myths and rituals (e.g. Greeks and Romans borrow mythological elements and deities to fit their cultures)

-  You are an Egyptian watching the sun rise over the Nile River, explain the significance of this daily occurrence,  where did the sun go when it was night? What do you believe happened to the sun or deities that are associated with the sun during the night?

- You are an ancient scholar, you are studying the Cult of Osiris.  You have read or been told the story of Osiris by Egyptians, and discover that Plutarch, a Roman Historian, has also recorded a version of the story of Osiris.  Do you notice any variation in the Egyptian version of the story whe comparing it with Plutarch's version?

- You are an Egyptian farmer working lands near the Nile. Which gods and/or goddesses do you rely on for a healthy and bountiful crop? Do you feel that they help or do the deities seem to be against you? Why would the deities favor you or want to destroy you? 

Common Themes in Celtic Mythology:

- Celtic cultures were diverse and deities and myths were localized depending on the tribe.  

- Oral tradition of myth telling; most tales not recorded in text ( recorded versions of Celt tales come from Roman sources; Romans and Celts were enemies, thus Roman accounts are often unfavorable views of the Celtic culture). 

- Myths of the Otherworld ; How to get to the Otherworld; The use of Burial mounds ( sidhe),  importance of geographic features (e.g. lakes, caves)

- Magic, Magicians, and supernatural events (e.g. the magic cauldron or kettles) 

- Epic and perilous adventure stories; mysterious and dangerous lands; larger than life heroes

- Romance, love, and tricksters can be found any many tales. 

- As a Druid priest, you are teaching the tale of Dagda. What role does Dagda play as a member of the religious sect of Celtic culture? Do you have any magic powers as a Druid priest?

- You are Celtic hunter that has come across another tribe of Celts that you are not familiar with.  Discuss the differences in your tribes with a member from the new tribe you have found.  Are your deities the same? Do they have the same names? Did you hear a new version of a old tale? 

- You are a Roman solider that just fought a band of Celtic warriors.  You have taken a Celt warrior prisoner, and having spent a lot of time in the region, can understand the what the prisoner is saying. Explain the conversation.  Is the warrior praying to a certain deity? Does the warrior tell you anything about the Celtic culture and beliefs? 

Common Themes in Chinese Mythology :

- Complex and old mythology (Chinese history, mythology, and reality intertwine). 

- Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism factor into Chinese Mythology.

-Changing dynasties means more or less emphasis on particular deities in the pantheon of Chinese gods and goddesses.

- creation of the cosmos and human beings out of chaos (e.g. Pan Gu and the creation of the world) 

- nature; Explanations of natural phenomena; Animism used often to explain the natural world.

- Astronomical observation and the use of myth to explain the origins of stars, the sun, the moon and their movements.

- moral issues.

- ancestor worship (became more important to Chinese culture with the rise of the Zhou Dynasty)

- An elderly member of your family has recently passed away after a long life.  Explain how your family views the passing of your relative based on chinese mythology.  Do you think your relative was favored by the deities, or does their death make you think that your ancestor crossed the deities somehow? Will your family do any rituals or ceremonies to honor your ancestors? 

- As an ancient Chinese astronomers, you explain various myths that account for the sun, moon, and the appearance of the Milky Way in the night sky.

-  You are a Chinese hunter/fisherman and are hoping to pass down your skills to your children.  You tell them the legend of the three Sovereigns and explain how this story is important to understand if the children want to be successful as hunters/fishermen. 

Common Themes in Japanese Mythology:

- Creation Myth (creation of the islands of Japan)

- Focus on nature; Everything in nature has a  kami --  a spirit or soul. 

- Many centuries myths were orally transmitted; 712 CE myths recorded in the  Kojiki  for Emperor; Another text, the  Nihongi  created around 720 CE contains more legends and myths, as well the genealogy of the imperial family (both text contain elements of Taoism). 

- Gods granting divine rights to Japanese Emperor

- The importance of mirrors as a mythic symbol

- Rituals to honor the Gods and Goddesses (e.g.kagura dances) 

-  You have grown up in a mountainous region of Japan, and have heard tales of the  tengu,  or trickster spirits that are part human and part bird, and inhabit the area. You have figured out a way to play a trick on the  tengu,  who do not like being on the opposite end of tricks.  What did you do and how did the tengu respond to your trickster ways?

- You serve the Japanese Imperial family as a scribe and/or scholar. You are writing a personal journal entry to yourself questioning the divine origins of the Imperial family.  Do you believe that they are truly descendents from the gods and goddesses as Japanese mythology claims? Why or why not?

- As a Japanese rice farmer, you harvest the most important crop for the civilization. Discuss the various deities and legends that help you cultivate this important food crop. (e.g.  Inari,  Amaterasu) 

Common Themes in Arthurian Legend:

-   A blend of Celtic Myth, history, and medieval romance; Arthurian Legend factor in to the Mythology of the British Isles (Britain, Ireland, Wales).

-  King Arthur may or may not have really existed

- Many Characters in early Arthurian Legends based on older Celtic myth characters (e.g. Merlin and Myrddin)

-  Equality amongst Knights of the Round Table.

- Magic Powers, supernatural beings, and epic quests part of Arthurian legends.

- Loyalty and human weakness explored in Arthurian legends.

- King Arthur is considered a timeless, or eternal king; Scholars have seen similarities between King Arthur and Sun Gods (die and set in the west, but reborn)

- Legends transform over time (Search for Magic cauldron becomes search for Holy Grail); Medieval writers create new Arthurian legends

Paper Ideas:  

- You are a medieval scholar and you have a new take on the Legend of King Arthur and his sword, Excalibur. Why do you need to retell this tale? What is different in your telling of the legend compared to other versions of the this legend? 

- Suppose that King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table did exist, and you are an aspiring Knight, hoping to be amongst those that set at the Round Table.  How would you gain favor with the King? Describe what it takes to be a Knight of the Round Table.  

- Compare an Arthurian Legend with the Celtic myth from which it originated.  How are they similar? How do they differ? (e.g. Merlin compared to Myrddin ; Quest for the magic cauldron compared with quest for the Holy Grail). 

Polynesian Mythology

Common Themes in Polynesian Mythology:

-Polynesia consists of several islands and cultures located in the Pacific Ocean (  Ranging from Midway and Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, the triangular area called Polynesia also includes Tahiti, Samoa, Tonga, Tuamotu, the Cook Islands, and the Pitcairn Islands).

-Though slight variations in mythologies exist based on particular island cultures, many of the basic themes, gods, and stories are shared throughout Polynesia. 

- Large emphasis on nature; Myths and legends explain the importance of the Ocean to Polynesian cultures.

- Creation myths very important to Polynesian Cultures (e.g. Ao and Po Hawaiian Myth; Te Po, Te Kore, Rangi, and Papi Moari myth)

- Yams and sweet potatoes are stable crops of Polynesian cultures, and have their own myths and legends surrounding them.

- Humans must deal with uncooperative or unfriendly gods in someway (e.g. myth of Maui) 

-  As a yam farmer on the island of Samoa, you have had a dismal crop and need to explain to your family why the deities cursed you this harvest. Using myths, explain what went wrong, and if possible, how to correct this problem for the next harvest. 

- You have grown up in the ancient Hawaiian culture, and experience the arrival of European explorers coming to your shore for the first time.  Based on your myths, how do you interpret the arrive of of these entities? Are they human? Is this a good or bad sign from the Gods and Goddesses?  

- As an experienced sailor from Tahiti, you are about to embark on a trip across the ocean.  Are there rituals that will help you have a safe voyage? Are their mythical creatures or certain deities you should worry about while you prepare for the voyage? Explain your thoughts as you load your craft for the ocean voyage. 

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Archetypes of Egyptian Myth in the Spiritual Science of Anthroposophy: An Epistemological and Hermeneutic Reply to Hornung

Throughout his vast oeuvre of published works, Rudolf Steiner frequently drew on the worlds of mythology and fairy tale for their images of spiritual realities. In 1999, Steiner’s treatment of the mythology of ancient Egypt drew special attention from Erik Hornung, Professor Emeritus of Egyptology at the University of Basel, located next door to Steiner’s Goetheanum in Dornach. This essay examines Erik Hornung’s logocentric framing of Steiner’s spiritual-scientific interpretation of the Isis-Osiris myth and mummification as it relates to the evolution of consciousness. Hornung catalogues the sources and parallels of Steiner’s approach to Egyptian myth as classical, Manichean, and Theosophical, which is useful but ultimately fails to grasp the value of Steiner’s transcendent use of Egyptian myth to engage the archetypal beings standing behind the images. This essay argues instead that the use of active imagination as a depth psychological hermeneutic is a more effective, and ultimately more satisfying, approach to understanding Steiner’s approach to Egyptian myth.

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Jung Red Book for our Time, Vol. IV

Bruce J MacLennan

Jung's Red Book is remarkable: visually stunning, imposing (both the original and the facsimile), mysterious, illuminating the development both of C. G. Jung as an individual and of Jungian psychology as a movement. From another perspective, as I argue, The Red Book is unexceptional (except for its aesthetic quality) for it is a typical product of a series of theurgical operations such as have been practiced for thousands of years. As such, The Red Book is especially valuable for our postmodern age, because it is an example of how the spirit of the depths can be encountered and accommodated in our time. This is an abridged preprint of a chapter to appear in Stein & Arzt (Eds.), Jung's Red Book for our Time, Vol. IV (Chiron, 2020).

Wesley Rose

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M Alan Kazlev

Mats Winther

Today there is a strong tendency towards making Jungian psychology a generic name for a diversity of systems that, although they at the first glance look related, because of similar terminology, their kernels and ideals are completely different from Jung's ideas. One of these theories is Hillman's "archetypal psychology," which radically reinterprets Jung's concept of the archetype, dismisses the important notion of the Self, renounces the process of individuation, devaluates the method of introversion, opposes Jung's notion of the moral obligation of grasping the unconscious and replaces this with the amoral, aesthetic, attitude of the puer aeternus (eternal youth). Despite this gross repudiation of Jungian psychology, Hillman is embraced by publishers as a "Jungian" or "post-Jungian" psychologist. But a correct denomination would be "anti-Jungian."

World's Geography of Love

Geraldine P Matus

Abstract (Summary) This research generates an alchemical hermeneutic analysis of four archetypes as found in certain ancient Egyptian texts and the contemporary dream text Heart of the Inner Chamber , the landscape of which is the "world's geography of love." As symbols of transformation, these four archetypal energies are essential reagents in the dramatic process of individuation, as understood in the depth psychological tradition. These archetypes are (a) the triptych of disintegration-death-resurrection, (b) the dying heroic masculine, (c) the feminine incorporatio (who incorporates the corrupt and dying heroic masculine into her body), and (d) love as the glutinum mundi (glue of the world). Certain ancient Egyptian ritual and mythic texts describe the sungod Re undergoing a recursive renewal of his life-giving force, which is facilitated by the love and ministrations of particular feminine figures. One such figure is the ancient Egyptian sky goddess Nut, a personification of both realms of heaven and netherworld, who swallows the failing Re at sunset, and in whose body the mysterious processes of his regeneration take place so he may be reborn at dawn. A Nut like figure appears in Heart of the Inner Chamber linking the psyche of the dreamer to symbols of transformation from ancient Egypt. As symbols of transformation, love as the glutinum mundi and the feminine incorporatio are not well articulated in the field of depth psychology, and particularly so regarding individuation. This research deepens the articulation of the archetypes of love as the glutinum mundi and the feminine incorporatio. As well the research invites a deeper valuation of a conscious engagement with these symbols of transformation, especially as they may serve us when we find ourselves in those ineffable and inevitable, chaotic, shadowy, and emotionally confounding places of being where we feel that we are dying or dead and hope for the miracle of our transformation and rebirth.

Vivianne Crowley

Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961), founder of analytical psychology, originated what has become one of the world’s most widely known psychotherapeutic schools. Jung has entered public consciousness not only as a psychiatrist-turned-psychotherapist, but also as a cultural commentator and quasi-mystic. While Jung’s early writings drew on his psychiatric work, later work represents a sweep through the world’s major religious traditions and many of its esoteric ones. Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Christianity, Gnosticism, alchemy and paranormal phenomena pass under Jung’s scrutinizing gaze and are dissected, not for their religious or metaphysical truths, which Jung claimed did not interest him, but for their psychological meaning: how could they help human beings live in contemporary society? Jung was born into an era in which science was disproving the literal truth of religious teachings and people were seeking new ways of interpreting them. One route lay through ‘scientifically’ proving religious claims, particularly that of life after death. Another route, which Jung condemned, was to seek inspiration from the East. A third route was to reinterpret religious teachings as symbolic. Religious symbols, their interpretation, reinterpretation and revivification became the major focus of Jung’s later written work. Jung’s religious writings have produced a vast volume of secondary literature. Christians, Buddhists, Hindus and Pagans find inspiration in Jung and claim him as their own. As yet, other than Noll’s hostile and emotive work, there has been little examination of Jung’s influence on the development of contemporary Paganism. This paper examines Jungian influences in Wicca.

Following Other Gods: A Depth Psychological Approach to Spiritual Transformation Through Polytheistic Personal Myths

R. Patrick Reeves

This thesis explores the disorientation that can follow the loss of religious faith, the lingering effects of religious complexes or religious trauma, and a possible path for fulfilling the religious instinct through fostering personal myths. Using psychologists Carl G. Jung, William James, and James Hillman as conversation partners, the approach is primarily hermeneutical with heuristic and alchemical hermeneutic components that describe a shift away from Christianity to a personal myth centered in the Celtic mythos. Starting with an examination of the definition of religion in contemporary religious studies, pluralism and polytheism are explored as a foundation for spiritual exploration that is conducive to the process of individuation and spiritual wholeness. Four sources for shaping personal myth are examined, through world religions, personalization, personification, and creative mythology.

ABSTRACT My goal is to outline an evolutionary neuropsychological and neurophenomenological foundation for spiritual and religious experiences. Central to this account are concepts from archetypal psychology, which, on the one hand, explain the structure of common religious experiences, but, on the other, are grounded in ethology and evolutionary biology. From this it follows that certain religious phenomena are objective, in that they are empirical, stable, and public.

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