essay on american government

332 American Government Essay Topics & Research Ideas

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American Government essay topics present a comprehensive spectrum for exploration, each varying in depth and complexity. Some themes may include the functionality of constitutional democracy in the United States (U.S.), the examination of civil liberties and rights, or the intricacies of the federal system. Students may delve into the analysis of influential Supreme Court decisions, the evolving role of the Presidency, or the workings of Congressional lawmaking. Contemporary subjects, like campaign finance reform, immigration policy, or the impact of media on political discourse, are also important. Unraveling the politics of environmental policy or the checks and balances system’s practicality offers bright themes. In turn, investigating the role of lobbyists and interest groups or dissecting the dynamics of public opinion and voting behavior can give intriguing insights. Thus, American government essay topics not only foster a deeper understanding of the nation’s political landscape but also stimulate critical thinking and analytical skills.

Top Government Essay Topics

• Privatization of Public Services: Merits and Criticisms
• Freedom of Information Laws: Transparency and Accountability in Government
• Understanding E-Governance: Potential and Pitfalls
• Interrogating Federalism: Power Dynamics in Multi-Tier Governments
• Political Polarization and Governance: A Detailed Analysis
• Digital Surveillance: Privacy Concerns and State Interests
• Immigration Policies: Comparative Analysis of Different Governments
• Climate Change Policies: Effectiveness and Implementation Challenges
• Political Accountability in the Age of Social Media
• Public Health and Governance: Lessons From Pandemics
• Decentralization in Government: A Thorough Examination
• State Autonomy vs. Federal Overreach: Tensions and Resolutions
• Analyzing the Concept of Sovereignty in the 21st Century
• Justice System Reforms: Understanding the Need and Potential Approaches
• Social Welfare Programs: Effectiveness and Public Reception
• Education Policy and Governance: Ensuring Equal Opportunities
• Tensions Between Civil Liberties and National Security
• Emergency Powers: Necessary Tool or Slippery Slope to Authoritarianism
• Campaign Finance Reforms: Balancing Transparency and Political Freedom
• Understanding the Separation of Powers: Checks and Balances in Action

Easy Government Essay Topics

• Understanding Democracy: Basic Concepts and Principles
• Different Types of Government: A Comparative Study
• Voting Systems: Pros and Cons of First-Past-the-Post
• Government’s Part in Economic Development: An Overview
• Public Health: Government’s Responsibilities and Duties
• Rights and Responsibilities of Citizens: A Closer Look
• Elections: Understanding the Electoral College System
• Why Do We Need a Constitution? An Elementary Explanation
• Importance of Civic Education in a Democracy
• Federal vs. State Powers: An Introduction
• Social Security: Functions and Challenges
• Government Regulation of Media: Freedom vs. Responsibility
• Public Transportation and Government’s Involvement: An Overview
• Differences Between Presidential and Parliamentary Systems of Government
• Local Governments: Responsibilities and Functions
• Citizen Participation in Government: Why Does It Matter?
• Understanding Public Policy: A Basic Analysis
• Freedom of Speech: Government and Constitutional Protection
• National Security and Individual Privacy: Striking a Balance

Interesting Government Essay Topics

• Privatization vs. Public Ownership: Theoretical Considerations
• Decentralization of Power: Unraveling Its Implications
• State Surveillance: Dilemma of Privacy vs. Security
• National Debts: Examining Their Economic and Political Effects
• Monarchies in the 21st Century: An Analytical Perspective
• Cryptocurrency Regulation: Assessing Different Government Approaches
• Digital Governance: Opportunities and Pitfalls
• Constitutional Interpretation: Originalism vs. Living Constitution Theory
• Understanding Federalism: A Comparative Analysis
• Emerging Role of Artificial Intelligence in Governance
• Climate Change Policy: National vs. International Responsibilities
• Democracy and Technology: Influence of Social Media on Governance
• Public Administration Reforms: Lessons From Around the World
• Immigration Policy: Factors Influencing Government Decisions
• Separation of Powers: An Inquiry Into Its Real-World Implications
• Fiscal Policy during Recessions: Strategies and Outcomes
• Authoritarian Regimes in a Digital Age: Unpacking the Complexities
• Intelligence Agencies: Examining Oversight and Control Mechanisms
• Social Equity and Government Policy: Challenges and Opportunities
• Political Dynasties: Assessing Their Influence on Democratic Governance

U.S. Government Research Paper Topics for College

• Gun Control Policies: Analyzing the Effectiveness in the U.S.
• Unraveling the Complexity of U.S. Immigration Reform
• Affordable Care Act: A Comprehensive Analysis Post Implementation
• Effects of Social Media on the U.S. Electoral Process
• Campaign Finance Laws in the United States: A Closer Look
• Government Shutdowns: Causes and Consequences in the U.S.
• Federalism in the United States: Changing Dynamics
• Dissecting the Patriot Act: Implications for Civil Liberties
• Constitutional Rights and Digital Privacy: An American Perspective
• Polarization in American Politics: Causes and Effects
• U.S. Tax Reform: An Analysis of Recent Changes
• Influence of Lobbying on Law-Making in the United States
• Supreme Court Appointments: Politics and Consequences
• Federal Reserve’s Monetary Policy: A Comprehensive Review
• Investigating the Role of Super PACs in U.S. Elections
• American Infrastructure Spending: Assessing Need and Impact
• Analyzing the U.S. Response to Climate Change
• Understanding the U.S. Electoral College: Pros and Cons
• U.S. Drug Policy: Lessons Learned From the War on Drugs

U.S. Government Research Paper Topics for University

• Native American Treaties and U.S. Government: A Detailed Study
• Rise of Partisanship: An Exploration Into U.S. Politics
• Education Policy in the United States: A Critical Assessment
• American Antitrust Legislation: A Review and Analysis
• U.S. Military Strategy in the Post-Cold War Era: A Comprehensive Study
• Housing Policy and Inequality in the United States: A Detailed Examination
• U.S. Trade Agreements: Analyzing Their Success and Failures
• Unfolding American Diplomacy in the Asia-Pacific Region: An In-Depth Review
• Citizens United Decision: An Analysis of Its Implications on U.S. Elections
• Racial Profiling and Law Enforcement in the U.S.: A Study on Systemic Bias
• Space Exploration Policies of the U.S.: A Comprehensive Overview
• Gerrymandering in the United States: Analyzing Its Impacts on Representation
• Public Health Policy in the U.S.: Lessons From the Covid-19 Pandemic
• Women in U.S. Politics: A Study on Representation and Influence
• Privatization in the U.S.: A Critical Analysis of Its Effects on Public Services
• U.S. Welfare Policy: An Evaluation of Its Efficacy and Inclusivity
• Privacy Rights in the U.S.: Analyzing the Balance Between Security and Liberty
• Minimum Wage Policies in the United States: A Comparative Study
• U.S. Energy Policy: A Study of Transition towards Renewable Resources
• Cybersecurity in the U.S.: Analyzing Government’s Role in Protecting National Infrastructure

American Government and Foreign Policy Essay Topics

• Middle East Policies: A Review of U.S. Strategy and Diplomacy
• Democratization and American Foreign Policy: A Critical Examination
• China-U.S. Relations: A Study of Economic and Security Dilemmas
• American Strategy in Containing North Korea’s Nuclear Ambition
• Shifts in U.S.-Russia Relations: Post-Cold War Analysis
• Climate Change and American Foreign Policy: An In-Depth Study
• Human Rights in American Foreign Policy: Case Studies From the 21st Century
• Evaluating U.S. Intervention in Afghanistan: A Retrospective Study
• Cyber Warfare and U.S. Foreign Policy: Exploring Strategies and Consequences
• U.S. and NATO: Analyzing the Changing Dynamics of Transatlantic Alliance
• Latin America in U.S. Foreign Policy: A Historical Analysis
• American Policy in the Indo-Pacific: Security, Diplomacy, and Economics
• U.S. Foreign Aid: Analysis of Trends and Effectiveness
• Arms Control and American Foreign Policy: A Review of Key Agreements
• U.S.-EU Relations: Trade, Security, and Diplomatic Perspectives
• American Policy Towards Israel and Palestine: A Critical Evaluation
• The Iran Nuclear Deal and U.S. Foreign Policy: A Comprehensive Study
• Global Health and American Foreign Policy: Priorities and Challenges
• Climate Diplomacy in U.S. Foreign Policy: A Study of the Paris Agreement

American Government and Media Essay Topics

• Media Influence on Presidential Elections: A Case Study
• Influence of Media in Shaping Public Policy: An Analysis
• The First Amendment: Press Freedom and Its Limits
• Media Portrayal of U.S. Foreign Policy: A Critical Examination
• Partisan Media and Polarization in American Politics: An Exploratory Study
• Fake News and Its Influence on American Political Discourse
• Public Broadcasting in America: A Historical Analysis
• Digital Media and American Politics: Understanding the Shift
• Social Media’s Influence on Political Mobilization: Case Studies From the U.S.
• Media Bias in Coverage of Gun Control: A Comparative Study
• Media Framing of Immigration Policies in the U.S.: A Discourse Analysis
• Network News and Its Influence on Public Perception of the Presidency
• The Power of Political Cartoons in Shaping Public Opinion
• Censorship and Self-Censorship in American Media: A Comprehensive Study
• Media Coverage of the Supreme Court: A Critical Review
• Cable News and Polarization in U.S. Politics: A Longitudinal Study
• The Role of Satirical News in American Political Discourse
• Media and Public Perception of Climate Change Policies in America
• Traditional Media vs. Social Media in U.S. Political Campaigns: A Comparative Analysis

American Political Parties and Elections Topics

• Campaign Strategies in Modern American Elections: An Analysis
• Transformative Elections in American History: Case Studies
• Minor Political Parties in U.S. Electoral Politics: A Comparative Study
• Influence of Lobbying on Election Outcomes: An Empirical Investigation
• How Gerrymandering Shapes American Politics: A Comprehensive Review
• American Presidential Primaries: A Historical Examination
• The Electoral College: An Evaluation of Its Efficacy in Modern U.S. Politics
• American Politics and the Issue of Voter Suppression: A Critical Study
• Dynamics of Swing States in U.S. Presidential Elections: An In-Depth Analysis
• Candidate Image Crafting in American Elections: A Semiotic Analysis
• Polarization and Its Effect on American Elections: An Empirical Investigation
• Public Financing in American Elections: A Comparative Study
• Third-Party Candidates and Their Influence on U.S. Elections: An Exploratory Study
• American Midterm Elections and Their Effect on Presidential Governance: An Analysis
• Effects of Negative Campaigning in U.S. Elections: A Quantitative Study
• Dynamics of Coalition Building in American Political Parties: A Case Study
• Presidential Debates and Their Influence on Election Outcomes: An Empirical Investigation
• Changes in Electoral Behavior in the American South: A Longitudinal Study
• The Effect of Voter Turnout on Election Results: A Statistical Analysis
• The Future of American Elections: Predicting Trends in the Digital Age

Government Research Paper Topics About the Executive Arm

• Presidential Decision-Making in Times of Crisis: A Comparative Analysis
• Foreign Policy Execution and the American President: A Critical Study
• Cabinet Appointments and Policy Outcomes: An Empirical Investigation
• Transformations in the Executive Office: A Historical Review
• Executive Orders: A Quantitative Analysis of Their Use and Effectiveness
• Exercise of Veto Power: A Comparative Study Across Presidential Administrations
• War Powers and the U.S. Presidency: A Constitutional Analysis
• American Presidency and the Pardon Power: A Legal Examination
• Executive Privilege: Its Use and Misuse in American Politics
• Presidential Succession and Continuity of Government: A Policy Analysis
• Dynamics of Executive-Legislative Relations: An Interdisciplinary Study
• The Vice Presidency: Evolution and Influence in Modern American Politics
• Presidential Campaigns: Financing and Its Influence on Policy Outcomes
• National Emergency Declarations and Presidential Power: A Constitutional Study
• The Power of Persuasion: Rhetoric and the American Presidency
• The Cabinet’s Influence on Presidential Decision-Making: A Qualitative Study
• Presidential Nominations and the Confirmation Process: A Policy Analysis
• Environmental Policy-Making in the Executive Branch: A Historical Review
• Immigration Policy Execution and Presidential Discretion: A Comparative Analysis
• National Security and the Use of Executive Power: A Critical Investigation

Legislative Branch of Government Essay Topics in American Politics

• Committee Power in the U.S. Congress: A Quantitative Study
• Bicameralism and Its Influence on Legislation: A Comparative Analysis
• Parliamentary Procedure and Democratic Governance: A Policy Review
• Policy-Making Dynamics in the Senate: A Historical Review
• Congressional Oversight and Its Effect on Executive Power: A Qualitative Study
• Gridlock in Congress: Causes, Consequences, and Solutions
• House Rules Committee and Its Influence on Legislation: An Empirical Investigation
• Legislative Agendas: Partisanship and Its Effects on Lawmaking
• Lobbying and Influence in the Lawmaking Process: A Critical Analysis
• Congressional Elections: Campaign Financing and Electoral Outcomes
• Redistricting and Its Effect on the Balance of Power in Congress: A Quantitative Analysis
• Filibuster and Its Impact on Legislative Efficiency: A Policy Analysis
• Political Polarization in the House of Representatives: A Comparative Study
• Congressional Ethics and Conduct: A Legal Examination
• Minority Representation in the U.S. Congress: A Quantitative Analysis
• Leadership Dynamics in Congress: A Historical Review
• Term Limits and Legislative Productivity: An Empirical Investigation
• Congressional Budgeting Process: A Critical Examination
• Lawmaking and the Influence of Interest Groups: A Comparative Analysis
• Checks and Balances: The Role of Congress in National Security Policy-Making

Political Behavior and American Government Essay Topics

• Identity Politics and Policy Preferences in American Government
• Shifts in American Political Behavior: Historical Analysis
• Public Opinion, Ideology, and Policy Change in U.S. Politics
• Media Consumption and Its Influence on Political Preferences
• Digital Democracy: How the Internet Has Transformed Political Participation
• Voting Behavior and Electoral Outcomes: An Empirical Examination
• Effects of Civic Education on Political Engagement: A Comparative Study
• Partisan Realignment and Its Consequences for American Politics
• Dynamics of Political Polarization in Contemporary America
• Political Trust and Its Relationship With Government Performance
• Cultural Factors and Their Influence on Political Attitudes
• Citizen Engagement and Its Relationship With Political Accountability
• Exploring the Nexus Between Socioeconomic Status and Political Behavior
• Environmental Concerns and Their Influence on Voting Behavior
• Political Socialization and Its Impact on Political Affiliation
• Understanding Populism in the Context of American Politics
• Racial Politics and Its Effect on the American Government
• Religious Beliefs and Their Influence on Political Behavior
• Public Opinion and Foreign Policy: A Historical Analysis

Political Theory and American Government Essay Topics

• Applying Rawlsian Justice to American Policy Making
• Hobbes and the Foundation of American Political Structure
• Lockean Ideals in the American Declaration of Independence
• Exploring the Influence of Machiavellian Theory on U.S. Politics
• Marxist Interpretations of American Economic Policies
• Application of Communitarianism in U.S. Social Welfare Policies
• Classical Republicanism and Its Echoes in American Government
• Neo-Conservatism and Its Theoretical Foundations in U.S. Politics
• Postmodern Perspectives on American Democracy
• Utilitarianism and Its Reflection on American Economic Policies
• Feminist Political Theory and Its Relevance in U.S. Politics
• Concepts of Liberty in American Political Discourse: A Theoretical Analysis
• Civil Disobedience: From Thoreau to Modern American Protests
• Pluralism and Interest Group Politics in America
• Exploring Libertarianism in the Context of U.S. Government Policies
• Populism as a Political Theory: Reflections in American Politics
• Deliberative Democracy in Practice: U.S. Town Hall Meetings
• Contractualism and the American Constitution: A Theoretical Analysis
• Understanding Identity Politics through the Lens of Queer Theory in the U.S.
• Anarchist Theories and Their Relevance to American Political Movements

Public Policy and Administration Topics

• Understanding Policy Feedback and Its Implications on Program Sustainability
• Public Administration Reforms: Comparative Analysis of Best Practices
• Fiscal Federalism and Public Policy Making in Decentralized Systems
• Emergent Public Policy Challenges in Cybersecurity
• Public Administration and Crisis Management: Lessons From the COVID-19 Pandemic
• Public Policy Responses to Technological Disruption
• Transparency, Accountability, and Ethics in Public Administration
• Policy Diffusion in Intergovernmental Relations: Patterns and Challenges
• Incorporating Behavioral Insights Into Public Policy Design
• Interrogating the Influence of Lobbying on Public Policy
• Urban Planning Policies and Sustainable Development Goals
• Gender Mainstreaming Strategies in Public Policy and Administration
• Public Administration’s Adaptation to Digital Transformation
• Healthcare Policy Reforms: Balancing Efficiency and Equity
• Exploring the Nexus of Public Policy and Social Justice
• Multiculturalism in Public Policy: Incorporating Diversity in Service Delivery
• Trade Policy Negotiations and National Interests: A Diplomatic Tightrope
• Fostering Innovation and Creativity through Education Policies
• Public Policy Making in the Age of Artificial Intelligence: Opportunities and Challenges

Questions About the American Government

• American Government System: Why Does It Operate on a Two-Party Structure?
• Supreme Court Appointments: How Do They Influence the Balance of Power?
• Understanding the Bill of Rights: Which Amendments Have Provoked the Most Controversy?
• Federalism in America: How Does It Affect State Policies?
• Impeachment Process in the United States: What Are the Criteria and Consequences?
• Why Does the United States Employ an Electoral College in Presidential Elections?
• American Government and Lobbying: Is There a Need for Stricter Regulations?
• Deciphering the Role of Super PACs in American Politics: Are They a Necessity?
• How Does Gerrymandering Influence Political Representation in America?
• Citizens United Decision: What Are Its Implications on American Democracy?
• Understanding the Powers and Limitations of the American Presidency: Is It Truly a Democratic Office?
• How Does the American Constitution Protect Individual Rights?
• Campaign Finance in American Elections: How Does It Affect Political Outcomes?
• Functioning of the American Legislative Branch: What Makes It Efficient?
• Why Do Executive Orders Play a Vital Part in the Functioning of the American Government?
• Effect of Gridlock in Congress on American Policy Making: Is It Detrimental?
• How Does Public Opinion Influence Government Decision-Making in the United States?
• Influence of Interest Groups on American Government: Boon or Bane?
• Bicameral Legislature in America: What Are Its Rationale and Significance?

State and Local Government Essay Topics in the American System

• Decentralization Dynamics: A Study of Power Shifts in State and Local Governments
• Strategizing Municipal Finance: Effective Revenue Generation Models
• State Sovereignty vs. Federal Guidelines: An Examination of Conflict and Cooperation
• Examining the Efficacy of Participatory Budgeting in Local Government
• Local Governments and Environmental Sustainability: Policy Design and Implementation
• Diversity in Local Government Leadership: A Comprehensive Analysis
• Education Policy Formulation at the State Level: A Comparative Study
• Municipal Bond Market: Understanding Its Function in Infrastructure Development
• Public Health Management at the State Level: Lessons From Pandemic Response
• Understanding Land Use Policy: A Perspective From Local Governments
• Fiscal Decentralization: Its Effect on State and Local Economic Development
• Urban Planning and Local Governments: A Critical Analysis of Current Practices
• Evaluating the Effectiveness of State Governments in Disaster Management
• State Government Pension Systems: An Analytical Review of Their Sustainability
• Public Transportation Policy: A Case Study of State-Level Initiatives
• Revenue Sharing Between States and Localities: An Assessment of Current Mechanisms
• Local Government and Community Engagement: Strategies for Effective Citizen Participation
• Accountability Measures in State Government: An Investigation of Transparency Practices
• Public-Private Partnerships in Local Government: A Review of Best Practices
• Challenges and Solutions in State-Level Cybersecurity Policy Implementation

The Constitution and Bill of Rights Topics

• Interpreting Freedom: First Amendment Controversies in the Digital Age
• Second Amendment Debates: Understanding the Constitution and Gun Control
• Protection vs. Privacy: The Fourth Amendment in an Era of Technology
• The Eighth Amendment: Contemporary Challenges in the Context of Criminal Justice
• Dilemmas of Due Process: A Critical Examination of the Fifth Amendment
• Origins and Applications: A Deep Dive Into the Tenth Amendment
• Historical Analysis of Constitutional Amendments: Understanding Their Significance
• Cultural Shifts and Constitutional Interpretation: Exploring the Changing Landscape
• Examining the Thirteenth Amendment: The Legacy of Abolition and Modern-Day Implications
• Constitutional Equality: The Unratified Equal Rights Amendment
• The Nineteenth Amendment and Beyond: Women’s Suffrage and Contemporary Gender Politics
• Voting Rights: The Twenty-Sixth Amendment and Current Debates on Age and Citizenship
• The Jurisprudence of the Supreme Court: Notable Cases Interpreting the Bill of Rights
• Constitutional Debates and Democracy: Analyzing the Balance of Powers
• Influence of International Law on Constitutional Interpretation
• How the Bill of Rights Influences Modern Social Movements
• The Constitution and Indigenous Rights: Historical Context and Present Implications
• Reevaluating the Commerce Clause: A Critical Exploration in the Context of Globalization
• Constitutional Perspectives on Data Privacy and Protection

The Judicial Branch of Government Essay Topics in American Politics

• Deciphering Judicial Independence: Origins, Challenges, and Prospects
• Understanding the Supreme Court: Composition, Function, and Influence
• Appointment Controversies: Analyzing the Supreme Court Nominations
• Federal Courts and Politics: An Examination of Judicial Decision-Making
• Checks and Balances: The Judiciary and the Executive Power
• Courts as Policy Makers: Exploring Activism Within the Judicial Branch
• The Art of Interpretation: Statutory Construction in the Supreme Court
• From Marbury to Modernity: The Evolution of Judicial Review
• Exploring Sentencing Disparities: An Examination of Federal Courts
• Diversity in the Judiciary: Assessing Representation in Federal Courts
• Law, Order, and Ethics: A Critical Analysis of Judicial Conduct
• Public Perception and Confidence in the Judicial Branch
• Case Precedent and Legal Stability: The Doctrine of Stare Decisis
• Securing Justice: The Role of Federal Public Defenders
• Judicial Power in the Context of Constitutional Crises
• Assessing the Effectiveness of Specialized Courts: A Comparative Study
• Judicial Restraint and Activism: Ideology in Supreme Court Rulings
• The Federal Judiciary and Civil Liberties: Trends and Implications
• Administrative Law and Federal Courts: A Study in Regulatory Litigation
• International Law in U.S. Courts: Application and Controversy

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Item 1 - purpose and function of our government - general.

Published on Mon, May 17, 2021 9:00AM PDT | Updated Mon, May 17, 2021 9:10AM PDT

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The United States of America (US) is a federal republic composed of 50 states, a federal district of Washington, D.C., five major and various minor insular areas, as well as over 90,000 local governments, including counties, municipalities, townships, school districts, and special district governments. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 329 million people, the US is the world’s third-largest country by total area and the third most populous.

Our vision and mission

As documented in the US Constitution, the people of the US, through our Government, seek to form a more perfect union by establishing justice, ensuring domestic tranquility, providing for the common defense, promoting the general welfare, and securing the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity.

Our strategy

To achieve the mission of the people, our Government raises money, spends money, and exercises its authority. Through these actions, it enables, incentivizes, and forces certain behaviors (e.g. saving for retirement through Social Security and Medicare, attending minimum years of school, getting vaccinated) in an effort to maintain or improve various key metrics related to American life.

Raising and spending money

Our Government raises money through taxes and non-tax sources, including businesses it runs. This money is used to pay government expenditures and to transfer money to individuals and others. At the federal level, when the money raised is not sufficient to cover the money spent (most years), the US Department of the Treasury may borrow money to finance the difference. States may borrow funds for projects but may not borrow to fund annual deficits, except Vermont, where its constitution does not preclude it from doing so.

Exercising authority

Our Government exercises its authority directly by regulating, legislating, and issuing executive orders and court orders. It also grants authority to, and rescinds it from, government agencies and state and local governments.

See more at Government operations below.

Continue exploring

About this report, government structure, explore the 2021 government 10-k, introduction, item 1a. risk factors, item 2. properties, item 3. legal proceedings, item 6. selected financial data, item 7. management’s discussion and analysis of financial condition and results of operations, item 7a. quantitative and qualitative disclosures about market risk, item 8. financial statements and supplementary data, item 9a. controls and procedures, item 10. executive officers and governance, item 11. executive officer compensation, item 13. certain relationships and related transactions, and director independence, item 15. exhibits, sign up for the newsletter.

American Government Structure Essay

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The models of representative democracy in US include the economic model and the political competition model. The political competition model is a pure conceptualized representative democracy whereby the form of government is of and by the people. Political competition is found in the people who want to become policy makers. This model is strong in the sense that these people are motivated by the fact that they want to influence results and outcomes.

This model is also able to view issues in a multidimensional point of view and therefore able to come up with solutions. Lastly the model is responsible and answerable to its people about any failures or achievements. The model however is faced with the weakness of electing irresponsible people as representatives of the others. By doing this the no achievements will be made. This will also apply when egocentric and selfish people are elected to represent the others. The economic model of representative democracy is whereby advisory commissions from outside are collectively use in decision making.

In the model political leaders maximize their support towards their net political ambitions. Advisory bodies are used to free special interest groups from problems and increase their chances of being supported. Special interest group’s ability and also willingness to support the legislation is increased due to political favourism. This model is however biased against the groups that have smaller voting powers. This will ensure that the cost of running the government and the economy are spread to all the groups in the country while the benefits are narrowly focused to those groups which are viewed to have stronger voting powers.

The political competitive model is therefore considered to be the best and appropriate for the people of America. This is based on the fact that the people are at liberty to elect that leader that they feel will represent them well. In this model there is no bias towards one side since the leaders are answerable for their actions to everyone.

Then Philadelphia convection which is now known as constitution convention took place in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1787. The aim of the convention was to address the problems facing the governance of US which was operating by articles of confederation after gaining independence from Great Britain. George Washington was elected to head the convention. Delegates form different parts of the country had conflicts of interest in the convention since they had different ideas.

The Virginia delegates through Madison’s work, notes and thoughts proposed a bicameral legislature in which the two houses of legislature were to be formed proportionately with the people electing the lower house which would then elect the upper house. The executive power was to remain dependent so as to ensure that the legislature’s will was carried out by the legislature. The plan also proposed the creation of a judiciary.

The Pinckney plan by the delegates of South Carolina came up with a plan which proposed for the establishment of a bicameral legislature composed of a house of delegates and a senate. Senators would be elected by the House of Delegates and they will serve in terms of four years. The president and the members of the cabinet would be elected by the congress. The plan provide for a supreme court while the congress would act as the court of appeal.

The New Jersey Plan which was a rebuttal to Virginia plan the executive branch would be elected by the congress which will have remained in place. It also proposed for a permanent judiciary and a yearly executive. This plan was however rejected. The Hamilton Plan was proposed by Alexander Hamilton due to his unsatisfaction with the other plans. He suggested a plan similar to the British governance in which the states were to be joined into a single nation. The plan also proposed a bicameral legislature, with the people electing the lower house to serve for three years and the upper house to serve for life.

Roger Sherman forged the Connecticut Compromise which finally settled the factions in the convention. He proposed that each state should only have a single vote.

The central governing body of US is the federal government which has three branches: judicial, executive and the legislative. Each branch has its powers bestowed on it which act as the system checks and balances. Each branch controls the other two branches while it is in turn regulated by the other two branches. The legislation is the congress which consists of House of Representatives and the senate.

The congress has numerous powers which include collecting taxes, provision of defense, declaring war, creation of courts other than the Supreme Court. The executive is composed of the president and the vice president. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court which is the highest followed by the appeal courts and the district courts in that order. The Supreme Court settles disputes among the states while the other courts handle cases in the states.

The federal government of US has undergone several changes in history especially in elections. There has been alternations of the parties Republican and Democratic in the house of congress. For example in 2007 the party control in both houses changed form Republican to democratic. There have been changes in government roles due to economic pressure which has led to economic recession. The Supreme Court has also effected changes to the system of governance. Such changes include state tax shelter of companies with intangible assets, changes in education system. It also adopted the change of constitution from the old articles of confederation to a new constitution.

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AP U.S. Government and Politics: Argument Essay

Question 4 of the AP U.S. Government and Politics free response section will always be the Argument Essay. These questions begin with a brief paragraph about a given topic, such as the balance between federal and state powers. The prompt will then give specific instructions about how you must format your essay, including a list of several required foundational documents that are relevant to the topic at hand. You will need to discuss one of the listed documents as well as another piece of specific evidence from your own knowledge.

Argument Essay Strategies

While the scoring for the first three free-response questions is more straightforward—you earn points (or not) based on fully addressing each part of the prompt—the scoring for the Argument Essay is a little more complex. The following rubric outlines what the AP readers are generally looking for when they grade your Argument Essay; note the various categories and the ways you can earn points.

Sample Question

• Formulate a defensible thesis that establishes a chain of reasoning.
• Federalist 10
• U.S. Constitution
• Take your other piece of evidence from a different foundational document from the list above OR from your own study.
• Logically explain why your evidence supports your thesis.
• Present and reply to an alternative viewpoint using refutation, concession, or rebuttal.

Step 1: Analyze the Prompt

Step 2: plan your response.

You’ll want to create a brief outline before you start writing, just like you would for any other full-length essay. As you saw from the rubric, AP readers are interested in your thesis development, your use of evidence, and your treatment of an alternative view. Everything you write should be toward one or more of those ends.

You will need to state a thesis that specifically addresses the prompt and makes a claim. Avoid rewording the prompt or being too general. A good question to ask yourself is, “Am I actually taking a position on this issue that someone else might argue against?” Also, while the Argument Essay necessitates a longer, more detailed response than the other free-response question types, it does not require a formal introduction; in fact, writing a lengthy introduction can take up valuable time and frustrate the AP reader who is scoring your essay. Assert your thesis as soon as possible, and then move into the rest of your response.

It is important to note that the Argument Essay’s topic and prompt wording will always intentionally allow for multiple positions. Therefore, you should be strategic and choose the position that you can best back up with evidence. You may even advocate for a different position than the one you personally agree with! To that end, no matter how strongly you feel about a topic, always present your evidence and claims in a balanced manner. Throughout your essay, even and especially when responding to an alternative viewpoint, avoid wording that makes it seem like your argument is simply your personal opinion (e.g., “I think” or “I believe,” or any language that is overly emotional).

With all of this in mind, a high-scoring writer might write the following outline:

Thesis: Trustee is the best model (ideals of Constitution)

• Madison’s fear: large country + big gov’t = factions (many groups disagree)
• Trustee can mediate, come to concl, act in best interests
• Needed trustee model to make change
• Civil rights and women’s rights movements
• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965

Response to alternative view: Anti-Feds would fear large repub (Brutus), but pol system in place would keep trustee honest

Step 3: Action! Write Response & Step 4: Proofread

Sample high-scoring response.

The trustee model of legislative representation is the best reflection of the founders’ intentions in setting up American democracy because it offers the best hope for what the Preamble to the Constitution calls “a more perfect union,” one that will bring together war- ring factions and increase harmony.

As James Madison pointed out in Federalist 10, it is inevitable that a republic will contain many groups which vehemently disagree. The bigger a country grows, the more frequent and violent factional clashes are likely to become. Madison was looking ahead to the U.S. that would burst the bounds of the original colonies and create more factionalism. This vision of an expanding, clashing nation makes the trustee model very appealing. A trustee Congressperson is one who will listen to all sides, make an independent judgment, but then go on to explain it so that opponents may be persuaded to change their minds, thus bringing resolution to conflicts.

A trustee is a representative willing to do the principled thing even if the public thinks otherwise. Many issues in our history have seemed so polarized that they were beyond resolution and could not wait for popular consensus. This was the case with civil rights issues and legislation in the 1960s. Technically, African Americans had the right to vote since the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870. However, this right was violently suppressed through intimidation tactics and a variety of restrictive measures such as poll taxes and literacy tests. It was not until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that substantial voting protections were extended to all black people. The Voting Rights Act outlawed literacy tests and other tactics; under this act, federal officials were sent to the South to ensure that African Americans were allowed to vote free from fear and intimidation, and the election practices of local governments were held under greater scrutiny. Civil rights movement leaders had challenged discriminatory practices for decades, but due to intense polarization in society, there was no public consensus on how to address racism in voting practices or even agreement as to whether to address it at all. Legislators had to go against the opinions of the majority in order to act in a way that advanced American ideals for all citizens, and the public eventually caught up.

Similarly, legislators pushed through the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which was supported by people within social movements but not by the general populace. Additionally, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 touched on the goals of not just the civil rights movement but also the women’s rights movement; for example, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act prohibited sex discrimination in public accommodations. Members of these movements had been working for years to get society at large to expand rights and protections to all people. However, if legislators had waited to act until a majority of their constituency approved of these civil rights bills, the bills may never have passed. In this way, the trustee model can be used to uphold the rights of the minority despite majority resistance.

The trustee idea would have been opposed by Brutus and other Anti-Federalists. Brutus 1 warns that a large republic would necessarily be disconnected from its people. Following this logic, a concern with the trustee model would be that the representative would deviate too far from the will of the people and become despotic. But it is important to note that the people have the ultimate voice if they disagree with the trustee’s judgments: the power of the ballot. The legislator’s desire to stay in power is a strong check on him or her, acting as an incentive to listen to constituents.

All in all, the trustee is in the best position to reduce the intense factionalism Madison feared. Even before the advance of mass media, the trustee had many means to learn of the people’s different views and to explain why the legislator was voting a certain way, or advancing this or that philosophy. This give and take of ideas surely helped to get the republic through its rocky early decades, and also helped the country to recover from the volatile growing pains and changes in the mid-twentieth century by finding ways to bring people together and advance equal rights for all.

Sample Response Explanation and Scoring

• Thesis (0–1 pt): The writer sets up a clear X because Y sentence to introduce the thesis, which could be paraphrased as, The trustee model brings about harmony. Everything that follows is connected to the founders’ ideal of harmony. The writer would therefore earn 1 point for Thesis.
• Support (0–3 pts): There is more than enough evidence to gain the full 3 points for Support, as the writer explains Madison’s argument in Federalist 10 and elaborates upon relevant historical examples of disharmony that those acting as trustees helped to fix through assertive actions. In addition, the references to the Constitution and Brutus 1 (while unnecessary for earning full credit in Support) show a strong command of course material.
• Reasoning (0–1 pt): The writer earns the 1 point for Reasoning by clearly explaining how a trustee offers the best hope for Madison’s vision. Specifically, the writer asserts in paragraphs 3 and 4 how trustees could not wait for public opinion in order to act.
• Reply to Alternative Viewpoint (0–1 pt): There is a whole paragraph at the end dedicated to rebutting the Anti-Federalists’ objections. In this way, the writer makes it clear that this requirement has been met and earns the final 1 point.

Question-Specific Rubric: 6 points (1 + 3 + 1 + 1)

Learn more about the other free response questions on the AP U.S. Government and Politics exam. Concept Application   •   Quantitative Analysis   •   SCOTUS Comparison

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Three Branches of Government

By: History.com Editors

Updated: September 4, 2019 | Original: November 17, 2017

The three branches of the U.S. government are the legislative, executive and judicial branches. According to the doctrine of separation of powers, the U.S. Constitution distributed the power of the federal government among these three branches, and built a system of checks and balances to ensure that no one branch could become too powerful.

Separation of Powers

The Enlightenment philosopher Montesquieu coined the phrase “trias politica,” or separation of powers, in his influential 18th-century work “Spirit of the Laws.” His concept of a government divided into legislative, executive and judicial branches acting independently of each other inspired the framers of the U.S. Constitution , who vehemently opposed concentrating too much power in any one body of government.

In the Federalist Papers , James Madison wrote of the necessity of the separation of powers to the new nation’s democratic government: “The accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive and judiciary, in the same hands, whether of one, a few, or many, and whether hereditary, self-appointed, or elected, may justly be pronounced the very definition of tyranny.”

Legislative Branch

According to Article I of the Constitution, the legislative branch (the U.S. Congress) has the primary power to make the country’s laws. This legislative power is divided further into the two chambers, or houses, of Congress: the House of Representatives and the Senate .

Members of Congress are elected by the people of the United States. While each state gets the same number of senators (two) to represent it, the number of representatives for each state is based on the state’s population.

Therefore, while there are 100 senators, there are 435 elected members of the House, plus an additional six non-voting delegates who represent the District of Columbia as well as Puerto Rico and other U.S. territories.

In order to pass an act of legislation, both houses must pass the same version of a bill by majority vote. Once that happens, the bill goes to the president, who can either sign it into law or reject it using the veto power assigned in the Constitution.

In the case of a regular veto, Congress can override the veto by a two-thirds vote of both houses. Both the veto power and Congress’ ability to override a veto are examples of the system of checks and balances intended by the Constitution to prevent any one branch from gaining too much power.

Executive Branch

Article II of the Constitution states that the executive branch , with the president as its head, has the power to enforce or carry out the laws of the nation.

In addition to the president, who is the commander in chief of the armed forces and head of state, the executive branch includes the vice president and the Cabinet; the State Department, Defense Department and 13 other executive departments; and various other federal agencies, commissions and committees.

Unlike members of Congress, the president and vice president are not elected directly by the people every four years, but through the electoral college system. People vote to select a slate of electors, and each elector pledges to cast his or her vote for the candidate who gets the most votes from the people they represent.

In addition to signing (or vetoing) legislation, the president can influence the country’s laws through various executive actions, including executive orders, presidential memoranda and proclamations. The executive branch is also responsible for carrying out the nation’s foreign policy and conducting diplomacy with other countries, though the Senate must ratify any treaties with foreign nations.

Judicial Branch

Article III decreed that the nation’s judicial power, to apply and interpret the laws, should be vested in “one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.”

The Constitution didn’t specify the powers of the Supreme Court or explain how the judicial branch should be organized, and for a time the judiciary took a back seat to the other branches of government.

But that all changed with Marbury v. Madison , an 1803 milestone case that established the Supreme Court’s power of judicial review, by which it determines the constitutionality of executive and legislative acts. Judicial review is another key example of the checks and balances system in action.

Members of the federal judiciary—which includes the Supreme Court, 13 U.S. Courts of Appeals and 94 federal judicial district courts—are nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Federal judges hold their seats until they resign, die or are removed from office through impeachment by Congress.

Implied Powers of the Three Branches of Government

In addition to the specific powers of each branch that are enumerated in the Constitution, each branch has claimed certain implied powers, many of which can overlap at times. For example, presidents have claimed exclusive right to make foreign policy, without consultation with Congress.

In turn, Congress has enacted legislation that specifically defines how the law should be administered by the executive branch, while federal courts have interpreted laws in ways that Congress did not intend, drawing accusations of “legislating from the bench.”

The powers granted to Congress by the Constitution expanded greatly after the Supreme Court ruled in the 1819 case McCulloch v. Maryland that the Constitution fails to spell out every power granted to Congress.

Since then, the legislative branch has often assumed additional implied powers under the “necessary and proper clause” or “elastic clause” included in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution.

Checks and Balances

“In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty is this: You must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place, oblige it to control itself,” James Madison wrote in the Federalist Papers . To ensure that all three branches of government remain in balance, each branch has powers that can be checked by the other two branches. Here are ways that the executive, judiciary, and legislative branches keep one another in line:

· The president (head of the executive branch) serves as commander in chief of the military forces, but Congress (legislative branch) appropriates funds for the military and votes to declare war. In addition, the Senate must ratify any peace treaties.

· Congress has the power of the purse, as it controls the money used to fund any executive actions.

· The president nominates federal officials, but the Senate confirms those nominations.

· Within the legislative branch, each house of Congress serves as a check on possible abuses of power by the other. Both the House of Representatives and the Senate have to pass a bill in the same form for it to become law.

· Once Congress has passed a bill, the president has the power to veto that bill. In turn, Congress can override a regular presidential veto by a two-thirds vote of both houses.

· The Supreme Court and other federal courts (judicial branch) can declare laws or presidential actions unconstitutional, in a process known as judicial review.

· In turn, the president checks the judiciary through the power of appointment, which can be used to change the direction of the federal courts

· By passing amendments to the Constitution, Congress can effectively check the decisions of the Supreme Court.

· Congress can impeach both members of the executive and judicial branches.

Separation of Powers, The Oxford Guide to the United States Government . Branches of Government, USA.gov . Separation of Powers: An Overview, National Conference of State Legislatures .

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Lesson Plan: AP Government: Argumentative Essay Practice

The Federalist Papers

Boston College professor Mary Sarah Bilder gives a brief overview backgrounding the Federalist Papers

Description

This is intended as an end-of-course review activity for practice with the argumentative essay format included on the AP United States Government and Politics exam since the 2018 redesign. Eleven practice prompts are provided, reflecting content from Units 1-3.

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY PROMPT ANALYSIS

• Review the provided Argumentative Essay Prompts in either an individual or jigsaw format.
• Write a thesis statement for your selected prompt(s) and identify the selection you would make from the provided list and the second piece of evidence you would choose.
• If there are prompts for which you struggle to develop a thesis, or items on the bulleted lists with which you are not conversant, use the hyperlinked C-SPAN Classroom resources to extend your understanding of the required founding documents and SCOTUS cases that you found challenging.

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY

• Chose one or more of the provided Argumentative Essay Prompts , as assigned, and use the planning and exploration you did above to write a full essay in response to your designated prompt(s) in 25 or fewer minutes , since that's the time limit you'll face on the AP Exam!
• Exchange essays with a classmate and evaluate each others' work.
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Government 101: The United States Federal Government

A Look at the U.S. Government's Basic Structure and Functions

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How would you create a government from scratch? The structure of the United States government is a perfect example that gives the people—rather than the "subjects"—the right to choose their leaders. In the process, they determined the course of the new nation.

The genius of the U.S. Constitution is no accident. America’s Founding Fathers had learned the hard way that any government—given too much power—would eventually oppress the people. Their experiences in England left them in fear of the concentrated political powers of a monarchy. They believed that harnessing the government was the key to lasting liberty. Indeed, the Constitution’s famed system of balanced separation of powers enforced through checks and balances was intended to preventing tyranny.

Founding Fathers Alexander Hamilton and James Madison summed it up, "In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the ​governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself."

Due to this, the basic structure the Founders gave us in 1787 has shaped American history and served the nation well. It is a system of checks and balances, made up of three branches, and designed to ensure that no single entity has too much power.

The Executive Branch

The Executive Branch of government is headed by the President of the United States . He also acts as the head of state in diplomatic relations and as Commander-in-Chief for all U.S. branches of the armed forces.

The President is responsible for implementing and enforcing the laws written by Congress . Further, he appoints the heads of the federal agencies, including the Cabinet , to ensure legislation is executed.

The Vice President is also part of the Executive Branch. He must be ready to assume the presidency should the need arise. As the next in line for succession, he might become President should the current one die or become incapacitated while in office or the unthinkable process of impeachment  occurs.

As a key part of the Executive Branch, the 15 federal executive departments develop, enforce, and oversee the voluminous rules and regulations currently in force in the United States. As the administrative arms of the President of the United States, the executive departments make up the president’s advisory Cabinet. The heads of the executive departments—known as “Secretaries”—are appointed by the president and take office after confirmation by the United States Senate .

The heads of executive departments are included in the line of succession to the President, in the event of a vacancy in the presidency, after the Vice President, the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate.

The Legislative Branch

Every society needs laws. In the United States, the power to make laws is given to Congress, which represents the legislative branch of government.

Congress is divided into two groups: the Senate and the House of Representatives . Each is made up of members elected from each state. The Senate is comprised of two Senators per state and the House is based on population, totaling 435 members.

The structure of the two houses of Congress was the greatest debate during the Constitutional Convention . By dividing representatives both equally and based on size, the Founding Fathers were able to ensure that each state had a say in the federal government.

The legislative powers of the United States Congress are explicitly stated in the Constitution. Article I Section I of the U.S. Constitution, which states in part, “All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives”. The 18 specifically enumerated powers of Congress are spelled out in Article I, Section 8. Besides the power to make laws, some of the most significant powers of Congress include:

• Declare war
• Levy taxes to be spent to benefit the general welfare and the common defense
• Oversee the expenditure of public funds
• Borrow money
• Regulate commerce with and between states, other nations, and Native American tribes
• Impeach and try federal officers
• Approve treaties negotiated by the executive branch
• Approve presidential appointments

Along with the enumerated powers granted to it in Article I, Section 8, Congress exercises a flexible set of “ implied powers ,” which though not expressly granted to it by the Constitution are considered “necessary and proper” to properly apply its constitutionally granted powers.

• The Judicial Branch

The laws of the United States are a complex tapestry that weaves through history. At times they are vague, sometimes they're very specific, and they can often be confusing. It's up to the federal judicial system to sort through this web of legislation and decide what is constitutional and what is not.

The judicial branch is made up of the Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS). It is made up of nine members, with the highest-ranking given the title of Chief Justice of the United States .

The Supreme Court members are appointed by the current President when a vacancy becomes available. The Senate must approve a nominee by a majority vote. Each Justice serves a lifetime appointment, though they may resign or be impeached.

While SCOTUS is the highest court in the U.S., the judicial branch also includes lower courts. The entire federal court system is often called the "guardians of the Constitution" and is divided into twelve judicial districts, or "circuits." If a case is challenged beyond a district court, it moves to the Supreme Court for a final decision.

Federalism in the United States

The U.S. Constitution establishes a government based on "federalism." This is the sharing of power between the national and state (as well as local) governments.

This  power-sharing form of government is the opposite of "centralized" governments, under which a national government maintains total power. In it, certain powers are given to states if it is not a matter of overarching concern to the nation.

The 10th Amendment to the Constitution outlines the structure of federalism in just 28 words:  “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.”

These governmental “powers” of federalism are thus classified as “enumerated” powers specifically granted to the U.S. Congress, “reserved” powers granted to the states, and “concurrent” powers shared by both the federal government and the states.

Some actions, such as printing money and declaring war, are exclusive to the federal government. Others, like conducting elections and issuing marriage licenses, are responsibilities of the individual states. Both levels can do things like establish courts and collect taxes.

The federalist system allows the states to work for their own people. It is designed to ensure state's rights and it does not come without controversies.

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Home — Essay Samples — Government & Politics — American Government — 3 Branches of Government

3 Branches of Government

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Published: Jan 30, 2024

Words: 432 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, a. overview of the three branches of government, b. checks and balances, c. importance of separation of powers, d. interactions between the branches.

• The Federalist Papers
• U.S. Constitution
• Supreme Court decisions

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1. Democracy and government, the U.S. political system, elected officials and governmental institutions

Americans are generally positive about the way democracy is working in the United States. Yet a majority also says that the “fundamental design and structure” of U.S. government is in need of “significant changes” to make it work today.

Republicans are more likely than Democrats to say U.S. democracy is working at least somewhat well, and less likely to say government is in need of sweeping changes.

And far more Republicans than Democrats say the U.S. political system is “best in the world” or “above average” when compared with political systems of other developed nations.

Overall, about six-in-ten Americans say democracy is working well in the U.S. today (18% very well, 40% somewhat well); four-in-ten say it is not working well (27% not too well and 13% not at all well).

About seven-in-ten (72%) Republicans and Republican-leaning independents say U.S. democracy is working very or somewhat well, compared with 48% of Democrats and Democratic leaners. Relatively small shares in both parties (30% of Republicans and just 7% of Democrats) say democracy in the U.S. is working very well.

While a majority of Americans say democracy in this country is working well, about six-in-ten (61%) say significant changes to the fundamental design and structure of government are needed to make it work for current times; 38% say the design and structure of government serves the country well and does not need significant changes.

By roughly two-to-one (68% to 31%), Democrats say significant changes are needed, while Republicans are divided (50% to 49%) over whether or not extensive changes are needed.

Although the view that significant changes are needed is widely held, those with higher levels of political engagement are less likely to say this than people who are less politically engaged.

Overall, those with high levels of political engagement and participation are split over whether significant changes are needed or not (51% vs. 48%). Views that the American system of government needs far-reaching reforms are more widespread among those with lower levels of engagement: 60% of those with a moderate level of engagement say this, along with 71% of those who are relatively unengaged with politics.

This pattern is evident within both partisan coalitions: 40% of Republicans and Republican leaners who are highly engaged with politics say the fundamental design and structure of American government needs significant reform, compared with 60% of low-engagement Republicans. Similarly, while a 57% majority of highly engaged Democrats and Democratic leaners say significant changes are needed, that share rises to 78% of the least politically engaged Democrats.

Across demographic groups, there are only modest differences in the shares saying that democracy is working at least somewhat well, but there are more pronounced differences on whether changes are needed to the fundamental design and structure of government.

Whites (54%) are less likely than blacks (70%) and Hispanics (76%) to say the government needs significant change, but the three groups have similar assessments of American democracy’s performance.

There also are significant age gaps over whether extensive change is needed to the structure and design of government, with 66% of adults younger than 50 saying this, compared with 58% of those ages 50 to 64 and 50% of those 65 and older. But age groups differ little in their evaluations of how well democracy is functioning.

Educational groups also differ little in their overall opinions of how well democracy is working. But those without a bachelor’s degree (65%) are more likely to say the government needs significant change than those with a college degree (54%) or a postgraduate degree (45%).

Americans give their political system mixed grades

When asked to compare the U.S. political system with others in developed countries, only about four-in-ten Americans (41%) say it is “best in the world” or “above average.” Most (57%) say it is “average” or “below average.”

Several other national institutions and aspects of life in the U.S. are more highly rated than the political system. Nearly eight-in-ten (79%) say the U.S. military is either above average or the best in the world compared with militaries in other developed nations – with 38% calling it best in the world.

Larger shares also say the U.S. standard of living, colleges and universities, scientific achievements and economy are at least above average internationally than say that about the political system. Only the nation’s health care system (30% best in the world or above average) and public schools (18%) are rated lower.

Republicans and Republican-leaning independents generally give the U.S. better marks for its performance on these issues than Democrats and Democratic leaners. About six-in-ten Republicans say the country’s political system is above average or the best in the world (58%), compared with about a quarter of Democrats (27%). Republicans also give the country much higher marks than Democrats on its standard of living, health care and economy.

The shares of Republicans and Democrats giving the U.S. high marks on several of these national institutions and aspects of American life have diverged sharply since 2014.

Today, Republicans are about twice as likely as Democrats to say the U.S. political system is above average or the best in the world (58% vs. 27%).

In 2014, about four-in-ten members of both parties gave the political system a positive rating (37% of Republicans, 36% of Democrats); in 2009, identical shares of Republicans and Democrats (52% each) said the U.S. political system was at least above average.

Partisan divides are growing in other areas as well. For example, 61% of Republicans and just 38% of Democrats describe the U.S. economy as best in the world or above average. Partisan differences in these assessments were much more modest in 2014 and 2009.

Little public confidence in elected officials

Americans express little confidence in elected officials to act in the best interests of the public. Just a quarter say they have a great deal (3%) or fair amount (22%) of confidence in elected officials.

That is by far the lowest level of confidence in the six groups included in the survey. Large majorities say they have a great deal or fair amount of confidence in the military (80%) and scientists (79%). In addition, higher shares express confidence in religious leaders (49%), business leaders (44%) and the news media (40%).

Overall public confidence in these groups is little changed since 2016, but in some cases – including elected officials – the views among Republicans and Democrats have shifted.

Though majorities of both Republicans and Democrats continue to express little or no confidence in public officials, Republicans (36%) are more likely than Democrats (17%) to express at least a fair amount of confidence in elected officials to act in the public interest. Two years ago, more Democrats (32%) than Republicans (22%) had confidence in elected officials.

The partisan gap in confidence in the news media also has widened considerably. Today, 58% of Democrats and just 16% of Republicans are confident in the news media to act in the public interest. Since 2016, the share expressing at least a fair amount of confidence in the news media has increased 12 percentage points among Democrats, while falling 13 points among Republicans.

And more Republicans have confidence in business leaders than did so two years (62% now, 51% then). Far fewer Democrats express confidence in business leaders (32%), and their views are little changed from two years ago.

Republicans also express more confidence in the military (92%) than do Democrats (73%), and the gap has not changed much since 2016.

State, local governments viewed more favorably than federal government

Americans have more favorable opinions of their state and local governments than the federal government in Washington. Two-thirds say they view their local government favorably, and 58% have favorable views of their state government. Only 35% of adults report a favorable opinion of the federal government.

Views of federal, state and local government have changed little over the past decade. Favorable opinions of the federal government have fallen significantly since peaking in the wake of the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

While overall views of the federal government in Washington are largely unchanged from late 2015, Republicans and Democrats have moved in opposite directions since then.

Today, 44% of Republicans and Republican leaners have a favorable opinion of the federal government, compared with 28% of Democrats and Democratic leaners. In 2015, views of the federal government were reversed: 45% of Democrats had a favorable view versus 18% of Republicans. Republicans’ and Democrats’ views of the federal government also flipped between 2008 and 2009, when Barack Obama won the presidency.

There are much smaller partisan differences in favorability toward states and local government. Majorities in both parties (61% of Republicans, 55% of Democrats) have favorable impressions of their state government; similar shares in both parties (69% of Republicans, 68% of Democrats) view their local governments favorably.

Views of Congress and the Supreme Court

Views of Congress remain extremely negative: Two-thirds of Americans say they have an unfavorable view of Congress, compared with 30% saying their view is favorable. The share expressing unfavorable views has increased slightly from a year ago (62%).

With their party in control of both houses of Congress, Republicans’ views are slightly more favorable than Democrats: 37% of Republicans and Republican leaners say this versus 24% of Democrats and Democratic leaners. Republican’s attitudes are more negative than a year ago, when 44% had a favorable opinion. Views among Democrats are mostly unchanged.

Attitudes toward the Supreme Court continue to improve after reaching 30-year lows in 2015 . Republicans’ views, in particular, are now more positive than three years ago.

Two-thirds of the public says they view the court favorably, and about three-in-ten (28%) hold unfavorable views. The share of the public saying it has a favorable view of the Supreme Court has increased 18 percentage points since 2015 (48%).

Most Republicans viewed the Supreme Court unfavorably after its decisions on the Affordable Care Act and same-sex marriage in summer 2015: Just a third of Republicans viewed the court favorably, compared with about six-in-ten Democrats (61%). Today, more Republicans (71%) hold a favorable view of the Supreme Court than Democrats (62%). Favorable views among Democrats have fallen since 2016.

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2. Foundations of American Government

Democracy was not created in a heartbeat. In a world where people were ruled by monarchs from above, the idea of self-government is entirely alien. Democracy takes practice and wisdom from experience.

The American colonies began developing a democratic tradition during their earliest stages of development. Over 150 years later, the colonists believed their experience was great enough to refuse to recognize the British king. The first decade was rocky. The American Revolution and the domestic instability that followed prompted a call for a new type of government with a constitution to guarantee liberty. The constitution drafted in the early days of the independent American republic has endured longer than any in human history.

Where did this democratic tradition truly begin? The ideas and practices that led to the development of the American democratic republic owe a debt to the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome, the Protestant Reformation , and Gutenberg 's printing press . But the Enlightenment of 17th-century Europe had the most immediate impact on the framers of the United States Constitution.

The Philosophes

Europeans of the 17th century no longer lived in the "darkness" of the Middle Ages . Ocean voyages had put them in touch with many world civilizations, and trade had created a prosperous middle class. The Protestant Reformation encouraged free thinkers to question the practices of the Catholic Church , and the printing press spread the new ideas relatively quickly and easily. The time was ripe for the philosophes , scholars who promoted democracy and justice through discussions of individual liberty and equality.

One of the first philosophes was Thomas Hobbes , an Englishman who concluded in his famous book, Leviathan , that people are incapable of ruling themselves, primarily because humans are naturally self-centered and quarrelsome and need the iron fist of a strong leader. Later philosophes, like Voltaire , Montesquieu, and Rousseau were more optimistic about democracy. Their ideas encouraged the questioning of absolute monarchs, like the Bourbon family that ruled France. Montesquieu suggested a separation of powers into branches of government not unlike the system Americans would later adopt. They found eager students who later became the founders of the American government.

The single most important influence that shaped the founding of the United States comes from John Locke , a 17th century Englishman who redefined the nature of government. Although he agreed with Hobbes regarding the self-interested nature of humans, he was much more optimistic about their ability to use reason to avoid tyranny. In his Second Treatise of Government , Locke identified the basis of a legitimate government. According to Locke, a ruler gains authority through the consent of the governed. The duty of that government is to protect the natural rights of the people, which Locke believed to include life, liberty, and property . If the government should fail to protect these rights, its citizens would have the right to overthrow that government. This idea deeply influenced Thomas Jefferson as he drafted the Declaration of Independence .

Important English Documents

Ironically, the English political system provided the grist for the revolt of its own American colonies. For many centuries English monarchs had allowed restrictions to be placed on their ultimate power. The Magna Carta , written in 1215, established the kernel of limited government, or the belief that the monarch's rule was not absolute. Although the document only forced King John to consult nobles before he made arbitrary decisions like passing taxes, the Magna Carta provided the basis for the later development of Parliament . Over the years, representative government led by a Prime Minister came to control and eventually replace the king as the real source of power in Britain.

The Petition of Right (1628) extended the rights of "commoners" to have a voice in the government. The English Bill of Rights (1688) guaranteed free elections and rights for citizens accused of crime. Although King George III still had some real power in 1776, Britain was already well along on the path of democracy by that time.

The foundations of American government lie squarely in the 17th and 18th century European Enlightenment. The American founders were well versed in the writings of the philosophes, whose ideas influenced the shaping of the new country. Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, James Madison, and others took the brave steps of creating a government based on the Enlightenment values of liberty, equality, and a new form of justice. More than 200 years later, that government is still intact.

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1.1 What is Government?

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain what government is and what it does
• Identify the type of government in the United States and compare it to other forms of government

Government affects all aspects of people’s lives. What we eat, where we go to school, what kind of education we receive, how our tax money is spent, and what we do in our free time are all affected by government. Americans are often unaware of the pervasiveness of government in their everyday lives, and many are unsure precisely what it does. Here we will look at what government is, what it does, and how the government of the United States differs from other kinds of governments.

DEFINING GOVERNMENT

The term government describes the means by which a society organizes itself and how it allocates authority in order to accomplish collective goals and provide benefits that the society as a whole needs. Among the goals that governments around the world seek to accomplish are economic prosperity, secure national borders, and the safety and well-being of citizens. Governments also provide benefits for their citizens. The type of benefits provided differ according to the country and their specific type of governmental system, but governments commonly provide such things as education, health care, and an infrastructure for transportation. The term politics refers to the process of gaining and exercising control within a government for the purpose of setting and achieving particular goals, especially those related to the division of resources within a nation.

Sometimes governmental systems are confused with economic systems . This is because certain types of political thought or governmental organization are closely related to or develop with certain types of economic systems. For example, the economic system of capitalism in Western Europe and North America developed at roughly the same time as ideas about democratic republics, self-government, and natural rights. At this time, the idea of liberty became an important concept. According to John Locke , an English political philosopher of the seventeenth century, all people have natural rights to life, liberty, and property. From this came the idea that people should be free to consent to being governed. In the eighteenth century, in Great Britain’s North American colonies, and later in France, this developed into the idea that people should govern themselves through elected representatives and not a king; only those representatives chosen by the people had the right to make laws to govern them.

Similarly, Adam Smith , a Scottish philosopher who was born nineteen years after Locke’s death, believed that all people should be free to acquire property in any way that they wished. Instead of being controlled by government, business, and industry, Smith argued, people should be allowed to operate as they wish and keep the proceeds of their work. Competition would ensure that prices remained low and faulty goods disappeared from the market. In this way, businesses would reap profits, consumers would have their needs satisfied, and society as a whole would prosper. Smith discussed these ideas, which formed the basis for industrial capitalism, in his book The Wealth of Nations , which was published in 1776, the same year that the Declaration of Independence was written.

Representative government and capitalism developed together in the United States, and many Americans tend to equate democracy , a political system in which people govern themselves, with capitalism. In theory, a democratic government promotes individualism and the freedom to act as one chooses instead of being controlled, for good or bad, by government. Capitalism, in turn, relies on individualism. At the same time, successful capitalists prefer political systems over which they can exert at least some influence in order to maintain their liberty.

Democracy and capitalism do not have to go hand in hand, however. Indeed, one might argue that a capitalist economic system might be bad for democracy in some respects. Although Smith theorized that capitalism would lead to prosperity for all, this has not necessarily been the case. Great gaps in wealth between the owners of major businesses, industries, and financial institutions and those who work for others in exchange for wages exist in many capitalist nations. In turn, great wealth may give a very small minority great influence over the government—a greater influence than that held by the majority of the population, which will be discussed later.

Socialism is an alternative economic system. In socialist societies, the means of generating wealth, such as factories, large farms, and banks, are owned by the government and not by private individuals. The government accumulates wealth and then redistributes it to citizens, primarily in the form of social programs that provide such things as free or inexpensive health care, education, and childcare. In socialist countries, the government also usually owns and controls utilities such as electricity, transportation systems like airlines and railroads, and telecommunications systems. In many socialist countries the government is an oligarchy : only members of a certain political party or ruling elite can participate in government. For example, in China, the government is run by members of the Chinese Communist Party.

In the United States, the democratic government works closely together with its capitalist economic system. The interconnectedness of the two affects the way in which goods and services are distributed. The market provides many goods and services needed by Americans. For example, food, clothing, and housing are provided in ample supply by private businesses that earn a profit in return. These goods and services are known as private goods . 1 People can purchase what they need in the quantity in which they need it. This, of course, is the ideal. In reality, those who live in poverty cannot always afford to buy ample food and clothing to meet their needs, or the food and clothing that they can afford to buy in abundance is of inferior quality. Also, it is often difficult to find adequate housing; housing in the most desirable neighborhoods—those that have low crime rates and good schools—is often too expensive for poor or working-class (and sometimes middle-class) people to buy or rent.

Thus, the market cannot provide everything (in enough quantity or at low enough costs) in order to meet everyone’s needs. Therefore, some goods are provided by the government. Such goods or services that are available to all without charge are called public goods . Two such public goods are national security and education. It is difficult to see how a private business could protect the United States from attack. How could it build its own armies and create plans for defense and attack? Who would pay the men and women who served? Where would the intelligence come from? Due to its ability to tax, draw upon the resources of an entire nation, and compel citizen compliance, only government is capable of protecting the nation.

Similarly, public schools provide education for all children in the United States. Children of all religions, races and ethnicities, socioeconomic classes, and levels of academic ability can attend public schools free of charge from kindergarten through the twelfth grade. It would be impossible for private schools to provide an education for all of the nation’s children. Private schools do provide some education in the United States; however, they charge tuition, and only those parents who can afford to pay their fees (or whose children gain a scholarship) can attend these institutions. Some schools charge very high tuition, the equivalent to the tuition at a private college. If private schools were the only educational institutions, most poor and working-class children and many middle-class children would be uneducated. Private schooling is a type of good called a toll good . Toll goods are available to many people, and many people can make use of them, but only if they can pay the price. They occupy a middle ground between public and private goods. All parents may send their children to public schools in the United States. They can choose to send their children to a private school, but the private school will charge them. On the other hand, public schools, which are operated by the government, provide free education so all children can attend school. Therefore, everyone in the nation benefits from the educated voters and workers produced by the public school system. Another distinction between public and private goods is that public goods are available to all, typically without additional charge.

What other public goods does government provide in the United States? At the federal, state, and local level, government provides stability and security, not only in the form of a military but also in the form of police and fire departments. Government provides other valuable goods and services such as public education, public transportation, mail service, and food, housing, and health care for the poor ( Figure 1.2 ). If a house catches on fire, the fire department does not demand payment before they put the fire out. If someone breaks into a house and tries to harm the occupants, the police will try to protect them and arrest the intruder, but the police department will not request payment for services rendered. The provision of these goods and services is funded by citizens paying into the general tax base.

Government also performs the important job of protecting common goods : goods that all people may use free of charge but that are of limited supply, such as fish in the sea or clean drinking water. Because everyone can use these goods, they must be protected so a few people do not take everything that is available and leave others with nothing. Some examples of common goods, private goods, public goods, and toll goods are listed below ( Figure 1.3 ).

Link to Learning

This federal website shares information about the many services the government provides.

Finding a Middle Ground

Fishing regulations.

One of the many important things government does is regulate public access to common goods like natural resources. Unlike public goods, which all people may use without charge, common goods are in limited supply. If more public schools are needed, the government can build more. If more firefighters or mail carriers are needed, the government can hire them. Public lands and wildlife, however, are not goods the government can simply multiply if supply falls due to demand. Indeed, if some people take too freely from the supply of common goods, there will not be enough left for others to use.

Fish are one of the many common goods in which the government currently regulates access. It does so to ensure that certain species are not fished into extinction, thus depriving future generations of an important food source and a means to make a living. This idea is known as sustainability. Environmentalists want to set strict fishing limits on a variety of species. Commercial fishers resist these limits, claiming they are unnecessary and, if enforced, would drive them out of business ( Figure 1.4 ). Currently, fishing limits are set by a combination of scientists, politicians, local resource managers, and groups representing the interests of fishers. 3

Should the government regulate fishing? Is it right to interfere with people’s ability to earn money today in order to protect the access of future generations to the nation’s common goods?

Besides providing stability and goods and services for all, government also creates a structure by which goods and services can be made available to the people. In the United States, people elect representatives to city councils, state legislatures, and Congress. These bodies make laws to govern their respective jurisdictions. They also pass measures to raise money, through the imposition of taxes on such things as income, property, and sales. Local, state, and national governments also draft budgets to determine how the revenue taken in will be spent for services. On the local level, funds are allotted for education, police and fire departments, and maintenance of public parks. State governments allocate money for state colleges and universities, maintenance of state roads and bridges, and wildlife management, among other priorities. On the national level, money goes to such things as defense, Social Security, pensions for veterans, maintenance of federal courts and prisons, and management of national parks. At each level, representatives elected by the people try to secure funding for things that will benefit those who live in the areas they represent. Once money has been allocated, government agencies at each level then receive funds for the purposes mentioned above and use them to provide services to the public.

Local, state, and national governments also make laws to maintain order and to ensure the efficient functioning of society, including the fair operation of the business marketplace. In the United States, for example, Congress passes laws regulating banking, and government agencies regulate such things as the amount of toxic gases that can be emitted by factories, the purity of food offered for sale, and the safety of toys and automobiles. In this way, government checks the actions of business, something that it would not do if capitalism in the United States functioned strictly in the manner that Adam Smith believed it should…almost entirely unregulated.

Besides providing goods to citizens and maintaining public safety, most governments also provide a means for citizens to participate in government and to make their opinions known to those in power. Western democracies like the United States, Britain, France, and others protect citizens’ freedom of speech and the press. These nations, and others in the world, also allow citizens to vote.

As noted earlier, politics is the process by which choices are made regarding how resources will be allocated and which economic and social policies government will pursue. Put more simply, politics is the process of who gets what and how. Politics involves choosing which values government will support and which it will not. If government chooses to support an ideal such as individualism , it may choose to loosen regulations on business and industry or to cut taxes so that people have more money to invest in business. If it chooses to support an ideal such as egalitarianism , which calls for equal treatment for all and the destruction of socioeconomic inequalities, it may raise taxes in order to be able to spend more on public education, public transportation, housing for the poor, and care for the elderly. If, for example, the government is more concerned with national security than with individual liberty , it may authorize the tapping of people’s phones and restrict what newspapers may publish. If liberty is more important, then government will place greater restrictions on the extent that law enforcement agencies can intrude upon citizens’ private communications. The political process and the input of citizens help determine the answer.

Civic engagement, or the participation that connects citizens to government, is a vital ingredient of politics. In the United States, citizens play an important role in influencing what policies are pursued, what values the government chooses to support, what initiatives are granted funding, and who gets to make the final decisions. Political engagement can take many forms: reading about politics, listening to news reports, discussing politics, attending (or watching televised) political debates, donating money to political campaigns, handing out flyers promoting a candidate, voting, joining protest marches, and writing letters to their elected representatives.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF GOVERNMENT

The government of the United States can best be described as a republic, or representative democracy. A democracy is a government in which political power —influence over institutions, leaders, and policies—rests in the hands of the people. In a representative democracy , however, the citizens do not govern directly. Instead, they elect representatives to make decisions and pass laws on behalf of all the people. Thus, U.S. citizens vote for members of Congress, the president and vice president, members of state legislatures, governors, mayors, and members of town councils and school boards to act on their behalf. Most representative governments favor majority rule : the opinions of the majority of the people have more influence with government than those of the minority. If the number of elected representatives who favor a proposed law is greater than those who oppose it, the law will be enacted.

However, in representative governments like the United States, minority rights are protected: people cannot be deprived of certain rights even if an overwhelming number of people think that they should be. For example, let’s say American society decided that atheists, people who do not believe that God exists, were evil and should be imprisoned or expelled from the country. Even though atheists only account for about 7 percent of the population, they would be protected due to minority rights. 4 Even though the number of Americans who believe in God far outweighs the number who do not, the minority is still protected. Because decisions are made through majority rule, making your opinions known and voting for those men and women who make decisions that affect all of us are critical and influential forms of civic engagement in a representative democracy such as the United States.

In a direct democracy , unlike representative democracy, people participate directly in making government decisions. For example, in ancient Athens, the most famous example of a direct democracy, all male citizens were allowed to attend meetings of the Assembly. Here they debated and voted for or against all proposed laws. Although neither the federal government nor any of the state governments function as a direct democracy—the Constitution requires the national and state governments to be representative forms of government—some elements of direct democracy do exist in the United States. While residents of the different states vote for people to represent them and to make laws in their behalf in the state legislatures and in Congress, people may still directly vote on certain issues. For example, a referendum or proposed law might be placed on the ballot for citizens to vote on directly during state or local elections instead of leaving the matter in the hands of the state legislature. At New England town meetings, all residents are allowed to debate decisions affecting the town ( Figure 1.5 ). Such occasions provide additional opportunities for civic engagement.

Most countries now have some form of representative government. 5 At the other end of the political spectrum are elite-driven forms of government. In a monarchy , one ruler, usually a hereditary ruler, holds political power. Although the power of some monarchs is limited by law, and such kings and queens often rule along with an elected legislature that makes laws for the country, this is not always the case. Many southwest Asian kingdoms, such as Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates, have absolute monarchs whose power is unrestricted. As discussed earlier, another nondemocratic form of government is oligarchy, in which a handful of elite members of society, often those who belong to a particular political party, hold all political power. For example, in Cuba, as in China, only members of the Communist Party are allowed to vote or hold public office, and the party’s most important members make all government decisions. Some nondemocratic societies are totalitarian in nature. Under totalitarianism , the government is more important than the citizens, and it controls all aspects of citizens’ lives. Citizens’ rights are limited, and the government does not allow political criticism or opposition. These forms of government are fairly rare. North Korea is an example of a totalitarian government.

The CIA website provides information about the types of government across the world.

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United States History

Origins of american government.

Inspiration for the U.S. government has come from a variety of sources. This destination will familiarize you with the various philosophers, philosophical concepts, systems of government, political agitators, and statesmen (including the Founding Fathers) that influenced the formation and fundamental documents of the government of the United States.

Inspiration for the U.S. Government

Many political theorists, documents, concepts, and institutions influenced the U.S. Declaration of Independence and Constitution in their assertion of natural individual rights and grounding of political authority in the consent of the governed. 

Philosophers and Political Theorists

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Dividing history into decades is an arbitrary but sometimes very useful way of trying to understand the arcs and significance of events. Trying to identify any single event as crucial to the understanding of a given decade may be even more arbitrary. 

Types of Government

A form of government that theoretically permits no individual freedom and that seeks to subordinate all aspects of individual life to the authority of the state. Read more. ​

A government by the few, especially despotic power exercised by a small and privileged group for corrupt or selfish purposes.​ Read more. ​

A political system based upon the rule of a single person. Supreme authority is vested in the monarch, the head of state, who achieves his or her position through heredity.​ Read more.

A system of government in which laws, policies, leadership, and major undertakings of a state or other polity are directly or indirectly decided by the people, though who is included and excluded from that category has varied across history​. Read more.

Form of government in which a state is ruled by representatives of the citizen body. Modern republics are founded on the idea that sovereignty rests with the “people.” ​ Read more.

Any political system that concentrates power in the hands of a leader or a small elite that is not constitutionally responsible to the body of the people.​ Read more.

A form of government that theoretically permits no individual freedom and that seeks to subordinate all aspects of individual life to the authority of the state. ​ Read more.

A political system based on the idea that the numerical majority of a population should have the final say in determining the outcome of a decision. Read more.

Forms of direct participation of citizens in democratic decision making, in contrast to indirect or representative democracy. Read more.

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Founding Fathers

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George Washington

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Was Alaska once ruled by a king? Has an amendment to the U.S. Constitution ever been repealed? Earn your stars and stripes in this quiz of American history.

Major Milestones

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