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• Transition Words & Phrases | List & Examples

Transition Words & Phrases | List & Examples

Published on May 29, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on August 23, 2023.

Transition words and phrases (also called linking words, connecting words, or transitional words) are used to link together different ideas in your text. They help the reader to follow your arguments by expressing the relationships between different sentences or parts of a sentence.

The proposed solution to the problem did not work. Therefore , we attempted a second solution. However , this solution was also unsuccessful.

For clear writing, it’s essential to understand the meaning of transition words and use them correctly.

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Table of contents

When and how to use transition words, types and examples of transition words, common mistakes with transition words, other interesting articles.

Transition words commonly appear at the start of a new sentence or clause (followed by a comma ), serving to express how this clause relates to the previous one.

Transition words can also appear in the middle of a clause. It’s important to place them correctly to convey the meaning you intend.

Example text with and without transition words

The text below describes all the events it needs to, but it does not use any transition words to connect them. Because of this, it’s not clear exactly how these different events are related or what point the author is making by telling us about them.

If we add some transition words at appropriate moments, the text reads more smoothly and the relationship among the events described becomes clearer.

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Consequently , France and the United Kingdom declared war on Germany. The Soviet Union initially worked with Germany in order to partition Poland. However , Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941.

Don’t overuse transition words

While transition words are essential to clear writing, it’s possible to use too many of them. Consider the following example, in which the overuse of linking words slows down the text and makes it feel repetitive.

In this case the best way to fix the problem is to simplify the text so that fewer linking words are needed.

The key to using transition words effectively is striking the right balance. It is difficult to follow the logic of a text with no transition words, but a text where every sentence begins with a transition word can feel over-explained.

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There are four main types of transition word: additive, adversative, causal, and sequential. Within each category, words are divided into several more specific functions.

Remember that transition words with similar meanings are not necessarily interchangeable. It’s important to understand the meaning of all the transition words you use. If unsure, consult a dictionary to find the precise definition.

Additive transition words

Additive transition words introduce new information or examples. They can be used to expand upon, compare with, or clarify the preceding text.

Adversative transition words

Adversative transition words always signal a contrast of some kind. They can be used to introduce information that disagrees or contrasts with the preceding text.

Causal transition words

Causal transition words are used to describe cause and effect. They can be used to express purpose, consequence, and condition.

Sequential transition words

Sequential transition words indicate a sequence, whether it’s the order in which events occurred chronologically or the order you’re presenting them in your text. They can be used for signposting in academic texts.

Transition words are often used incorrectly. Make sure you understand the proper usage of transition words and phrases, and remember that words with similar meanings don’t necessarily work the same way grammatically.

Misused transition words can make your writing unclear or illogical. Your audience will be easily lost if you misrepresent the connections between your sentences and ideas.

Confused use of therefore

“Therefore” and similar cause-and-effect words are used to state that something is the result of, or follows logically from, the previous. Make sure not to use these words in a way that implies illogical connections.

• We asked participants to rate their satisfaction with their work from 1 to 10. Therefore , the average satisfaction among participants was 7.5.

The use of “therefore” in this example is illogical: it suggests that the result of 7.5 follows logically from the question being asked, when in fact many other results were possible. To fix this, we simply remove the word “therefore.”

• We asked participants to rate their satisfaction with their work from 1 to 10. The average satisfaction among participants was 7.5.

Starting a sentence with also , and , or so

While the words “also,” “and,” and “so” are used in academic writing, they are considered too informal when used at the start of a sentence.

• Also , a second round of testing was carried out.

To fix this issue, we can either move the transition word to a different point in the sentence or use a more formal alternative.

• A second round of testing was also carried out.
• Additionally , a second round of testing was carried out.

Transition words creating sentence fragments

Words like “although” and “because” are called subordinating conjunctions . This means that they introduce clauses which cannot stand on their own. A clause introduced by one of these words should always follow or be followed by another clause in the same sentence.

The second sentence in this example is a fragment, because it consists only of the “although” clause.

• Smith (2015) argues that the period should be reassessed. Although other researchers disagree.

We can fix this in two different ways. One option is to combine the two sentences into one using a comma. The other option is to use a different transition word that does not create this problem, like “however.”

• Smith (2015) argues that the period should be reassessed, although other researchers disagree.
• Smith (2015) argues that the period should be reassessed. However , other researchers disagree.

And vs. as well as

Students often use the phrase “ as well as ” in place of “and,” but its usage is slightly different. Using “and” suggests that the things you’re listing are of equal importance, while “as well as” introduces additional information that is less important.

• Chapter 1 discusses some background information on Woolf, as well as presenting my analysis of To the Lighthouse .

In this example, the analysis is more important than the background information. To fix this mistake, we can use “and,” or we can change the order of the sentence so that the most important information comes first. Note that we add a comma before “as well as” but not before “and.”

• Chapter 1 discusses some background information on Woolf and presents my analysis of To the Lighthouse .
• Chapter 1 presents my analysis of To the Lighthouse , as well as discussing some background information on Woolf.

Note that in fixed phrases like “both x and y ,” you must use “and,” not “as well as.”

• Both my results as well as my interpretations are presented below.
• Both my results and my interpretations are presented below.

Use of and/or

The combination of transition words “and/or” should generally be avoided in academic writing. It makes your text look messy and is usually unnecessary to your meaning.

First consider whether you really do mean “and/or” and not just “and” or “or.” If you are certain that you need both, it’s best to separate them to make your meaning as clear as possible.

• Participants were asked whether they used the bus and/or the train.
• Participants were asked whether they used the bus, the train, or both.

Archaic transition words

Words like “hereby,” “therewith,” and most others formed by the combination of “here,” “there,” or “where” with a preposition are typically avoided in modern academic writing. Using them makes your writing feel old-fashioned and strained and can sometimes obscure your meaning.

• Poverty is best understood as a disease. Hereby , we not only see that it is hereditary, but acknowledge its devastating effects on a person’s health.

These words should usually be replaced with a more explicit phrasing expressing how the current statement relates to the preceding one.

• Poverty is best understood as a disease. Understanding it as such , we not only see that it is hereditary, but also acknowledge its devastating effects on a person’s health.

Using a paraphrasing tool for clear writing

With the use of certain tools, you can make your writing clear. One of these tools is a paraphrasing tool . One thing the tool does is help your sentences make more sense. It has different modes where it checks how your text can be improved. For example, automatically adding transition words where needed.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or writing rules make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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adjective as in very much alike

Strongest matches

• complementary

Strong match

Weak matches

• coincidental
• consubstantial
• correlative
• corresponding
• homogeneous
• in agreement
• much the same

Example Sentences

Patterns similar to those in the Amazon and Pantanal have also played out in Indonesia in recent years.

Something similar happened in Michigan that same year, and in North Carolina two years earlier.

NBCU’s Total Investment Impact is similar to the media mix modeling that marketers use internally to gauge how they should be allocating their advertising dollars.

Siri has a similar feature called Shortcuts—it should appear as an app on your iPhone, but you can also download it here.

Turns out KPBS did manage to get similar data broken down by ZIP codes from El Cajon.

“I think the types of stories we do are very similar to what happened with hip-hop,” says Jones.

On Dec. 30, she filed a similar lawsuit in D.C. Superior Court.

Hopefully not overly close, but we talk about it in the episode how similar it is.

Cassandra, whose hair has already begun to fall out from her court-mandated chemotherapy, could face a similar outcome.

Rates are thought to be similar in developed countries around the world.

It, or a similar bacillus, is sometimes found in the sputum of gangrene of the lung.

A similar state had occurred that 'Karnak night' of a long ten days ago, though he had not understood it then.

The collection in the Academy I thought much better, but still far enough behind similar galleries in Rome.

Many times, in his dreams and in his waking thoughts, he had lived over scenes similar to this.

The wedding breakfast very much resembled the similar festivities at which most of us have assisted.

Related Words

Words related to similar are not direct synonyms, but are associated with the word similar . Browse related words to learn more about word associations.

adjective as in related or connected

adjective as in similar

• approximate
• carbon copy
• correspondent
• dead ringer
• indistinguishable
• proportionate
• same difference
• spitting image
• undifferentiated

adjective as in accurate, precise

• conscientious

adjective as in alike, associated

• consanguine

adjective as in approximate, close to

• approaching
• by comparison
• conditional
• contrastive
• in proportion
• metaphorical
• not absolute
• not positive
• provisional
• with reservation

Viewing 5 / 27 related words

From Roget's 21st Century Thesaurus, Third Edition Copyright © 2013 by the Philip Lief Group.

50 Linking Words (Logical Connectors) in English Classified by Theme

Updated on 27 August 2024

• Linking words, also known as logical connectors, are adverbs or conjunctions used to structure your English sentences. They are important for connecting different ideas and avoiding repetition.
• You will need it to:  start a text, express a cause and effect, link an opposition, state a condition, add or list ideas, indicate a consequence, or summarize an idea.

Here are some examples:

• First of all

In this course, you will find the 50 most useful English logical connectors , along with examples, videos, and exercises to test your knowledge. The course is also available in PDF format.

Understanding how to use linking words is an essential vocabulary and grammar concept to improve your writing and speaking skills. Indeed, they help you write better essays, stories, and arguments and organize your thoughts more clearly in speech.

Table of contents →

To start a sentence

These English linking words are useful for introducing an idea, a first point, or a complete argument that you will develop further in a paragraph.

To express a condition

When you need to establish a condition between two sets of ideas in a conversation or writing, the following expressions are very useful.

To express argument (cause, consequence)

The following logical connectors are used to express because, as a result, therefore, etc . These linking words are useful for showing a logical cause-and-effect relationship between different elements , especially when making an argument.

Note: It’s important to carefully distinguish between purpose, cause, and consequence . The purpose is the reason for performing an action, while the consequence is the result of that action.

To continue a discussion

To expand on your thoughts or arguments , you’ll need some additional vocabulary. With the following linking words, you’ll be able to say in addition, furthermore, for example, indeed , etc.

To compare and contrast

Need to contrast two ideas or viewpoints? Express opposition in English with the following list of conjunctions.

To suppose (conditional)

To end a speech

Concluding your speech effectively is crucial for clear communication. The following phrases can be used to conclude a speech, summarize your main points, or add a final thought to your text.

Note: The Case of For and Since

Pay attention to the meaning of  for  and  since  when you encounter them.

• For = Indicates duration of time

Since = Refers to a starting point in time (date or precise moment).

For = Because → This usage is rare and rather literary, but you can come across its usage.

Since = As → Can be replaced by As ; used when explaining a reason.

Adrien’s Tip 💡

You will find a lot of different names for linking words:

• Logical connectors
• Adverb (of cause, consequence, etc.)
• Adverbial phrases
• Preposition
• Coordinating conjunction
• Subordinating conjunction
• Conjunctive phrase

To keep things simple, focus on how to use these words instead of their definitions. Just remember:

These are words that help organize your ideas in a logical way, either across multiple paragraphs or by connecting sentences to express a complex idea clearly.

50 sentences to learn how to use them

Here are more than 50 concrete examples to help you understand how to use logical connectors in English. Each example is provided with a brief explanation and audio to guide your learning.

To start a text

Express a condition

Justify your point in an argument

To continue the discussion

Logical connectors for comparing and contrasting

Linking words to end a speech

4 Exercises on English Linking Words

1. Complete the sentences using the following connectors. Only one word can fit in each blank.

Linking Words to Use: WHEREAS – THANKS TO – SO AS TO – SINCE – HOWEVER – DUE TO – AS LONG AS – ALTHOUGH.

• I don’t mind going there ________ it’s not too far.
• ________a problem in our computer system, the online assistance is temporarily not available.
• Can you pick up the kids from school ________ you’re not working today?
• Please check all your equipment every morning ________ make sure it’s fully operational.
• We managed to solve our problem ________ the help of a technician.
• ________ many people congratulated him, he didn’t seem satisfied.
• He was exhausted halfway through the game; ________, he didn’t give up.
• I would like to watch an action movie ________she wants to watch a romantic comedy.

2. Read the two sentences and use the given linking word to create one sentence. Make any necessary changes.

• Bring a snack.
• You might get hungry.
• Connector: IN CASE
• Result: Bring a snack in case you get hungry.

Now, construct sentences using the following pairs of sentences and connectors:

• I will do it.
• If you tell me not to, I won’t do it.
• Connector: UNLESS
• We need to leave now.
• If we don’t leave now, we’ll be late.
• Connector: OTHERWISE
• You said I would like it.
• I didn’t like it.
• Connector: CONTRARY TO
• Jim likes fishing.
• Paul doesn’t.
• Connector: UNLIKE (2 possibilities)
• We made a financial gesture.
• They didn’t accept our offer.
• Connector: DESPITE (2 possibilities)

3. Complete the sentences using the linking words below to match the beginning and end of each sentence. There is only one correct combination for each one.

Linking words to use: YET – THEREFORE – SO THAT – FOR – AS SOON AS – AS A RESULT OF.

4. Complete the following sentences using FOR or SINCE .

• I haven’t seen Mark ____ ages.
• Paul has been sick ____ his birthday.
• I’ve worked in this building ____ 2010.
• I haven’t heard of him ____ months.
• Lucy’s had a headache ____ this morning.
• We’ve been married ____ two years.
• What have you been doing ____ last summer?
• Can I stay at your place ____ a couple of days?

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Synonyms of similar

• as in comparable
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Thesaurus Definition of similar

Synonyms & Similar Words

• corresponding
• correspondent
• on the order of
• commensurate
• proportionate
• interchangeable
• indistinguishable
• homogeneous
• approaching
• conformable
• substitutable
• congenerous
• coextensive
• approximating

Antonyms & Near Antonyms

• distinguishable
• nonequivalent
• noninterchangeable
• unconnected

Synonym Chooser

How does the adjective similar contrast with its synonyms?

The words analogous and parallel are common synonyms of similar . While all three words mean "closely resembling each other," similar implies the possibility of being mistaken for each other.

When can analogous be used instead of similar ?

The synonyms analogous and similar are sometimes interchangeable, but analogous applies to things belonging in essentially different categories but nevertheless having many similarities.

In what contexts can parallel take the place of similar ?

While the synonyms parallel and similar are close in meaning, parallel suggests a marked likeness in the development of two things.

Examples of similar in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'similar.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Articles Related to similar

The Shared History of Dissimilar Words

Incumbent, Succumb, and Recumbent

Thesaurus Entries Near similar

similarities

Cite this Entry

“Similar.” Merriam-Webster.com Thesaurus , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/similar. Accessed 29 Aug. 2024.

More from Merriam-Webster on similar

Nglish: Translation of similar for Spanish Speakers

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• Essay Editor

Hero Essay: Who Is a Hero and How to Write About Heroes

In academic writing, few topics are as inspiring and thought-provoking as the hero essay. A hero essay lets us think about what makes someone a hero and why they matter to us or the world. You might write about someone from history, a person making a difference today, or even a made-up character from a story. Writing an exceptional hero essay takes some thought and planning, but it can be a great way to share your ideas.

What is a Hero Essay?

A hero essay is a piece of writing that looks at what it means to be a hero. It usually focuses on one person who shows heroic qualities. The goal is to explain why this person is a hero by looking at what they've done, what kind of person they are, and how they've helped others.

How to Write a Great Story About Your Hero

To write a really good hero story, you need to plan it out. Here's how you can do it:

• Pick your hero: Choose someone you really look up to, real or made-up.
• Do your homework: Learn all you can about your hero's life, what they've done, and what problems they've faced.
• Find their best qualities: Figure out what makes this person heroic.
• Make your main point: Clearly say why you think this person is a hero.
• Plan your essay: Organize your ideas into a beginning, middle, and end.
• Use clear examples: Show how your hero acted in heroic ways.
• Think about their effect: Talk about how your hero has helped other people or made the world better.

When you're thinking about how to describe a hero, look at both what they do and who they are inside. What makes them want to help others? How do they inspire people? Asking these questions can help you paint a full picture of your hero.

To organize these complex character traits and their manifestations, consider using Aithor to map out your hero's qualities and their corresponding actions.

How to Make a Good Outline for My Hero Essay

A good outline helps you organize your essay. Here's a way you could set up your hero essay:

• Start with something interesting to get the reader's attention
• Give a little background about your hero
• State your main idea about why they're a hero
• Describe what makes them heroic and give examples
• Talk about the big things they've done
• Discuss the hard things they've faced and how they dealt with them
• Explain how the hero has made a difference for people or the world
• Sum up your main points
• Remind the reader why this person is a hero
• End with something to make the reader think

You can change this outline to fit your hero's story better if you need to.

Ideas for Writing a Great Paper About Your Hero

Picking the right person and topic for your hero essay can make a big difference. Here are some ideas to consider:

• Unexpected heroes: Write about someone who isn't what most people think of as a hero but who has made a big difference.
• Personal heroes: Talk about someone close to you, like a family member or community member, who you think is a hero.
• Everyday heroes: Focus on people who do small, kind things that add up to big changes.
• Historical heroes: Look at how someone from history still matters today.
• Anti-heroes: Write about people who do good things in ways that aren't always simple or easy to understand.

When thinking about how to start a hero story, you might want to begin with an important moment in your hero's life. This can get the reader interested right away.

Tips on How to Write a Hero Story

To push your hero essay from good to great, try these tips:

• Start strong: Get the reader's attention with a strong first sentence or a short story.
• Show, don't tell: Use words that help the reader picture what your hero did.
• Balance praise with reality: Talk about your hero's mistakes too, to make them seem more real.
• Give clear examples: Use specific stories to show why your hero is heroic.
• Incorporate dialogue: If you can, include things your hero or others have said.
• Show how they've changed: Talk about how your hero has grown over time. 
• Share what we can learn: Discuss what others can learn from your hero.

When pondering how do you spell heroic, remember that it's not just about spelling it right. It's about using words that show why your hero is special. Use words that show you admire them, but don't go overboard.

Aithor can help you choose the right words and spell them correctly so your writing strikes the right balance between eloquence and authenticity.

Hero Essay Examples to Read

Reading other people's hero essays can give you good ideas for your own. Here's a short excerpt of a student's essay about their personal hero:

When I think about heroes, I don't think about people with capes or superpowers. Instead, I think about my mom coming home tired from her night shift at the hospital. She's been a nurse for as long as I can remember, and it's a hard job.

I remember one time when I was about 10 and really sick. Mom had just worked two shifts in a row. She must have been so tired, but she still sat by my bed. She put a cool cloth on my forehead and told me funny stories to help me feel better. When she tucked me in that night, her eyes looked sleepy, but she still smiled. She brushed my hair back and said quietly, "We'll get through this together, sweetie."

That's just how my mom is. She's not perfect - she often burns toast, and sometimes she gets too into her favorite TV shows. But her kindness and hard work are real. She might stay late at work to help a scared patient or volunteer at the animal shelter on her days off. Mom taught me that being a hero isn't about doing big, flashy things. It's about showing up, being kind, and making things better in your own small way. To me, that makes her the biggest hero I know.

Final Words

Writing a hero essay helps you understand what makes someone a hero and gives you the opportunity to discuss people who inspire you. If you choose your subject carefully, plan your essay well, and use clear examples, you can write a story that really means something to people who read it.

Remember, the best hero essays do more than just say nice things about someone. They help us understand what it really means to be heroic. As you start writing, try using writing tools like Aithor to help you organize your ideas and focus on telling your hero's story clearly and powerfully. From outlining to final edits, Aithor's comprehensive features support every stage of writing your perfect hero essay.

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An excerpt from ‘A Wonderland of Words: Around the Word in 101 Essays’, by Shashi Tharoor.

The remarkable capacity of the English language to borrow and absorb, in regular usage, words from other languages – with words that originated in French and German before coming into common use in English – is rather widely known. But an even more unlikely contender for loaning words to the English is Japanese.

A word many book lovers have learned is tsundoku, which refers to the growing pile of unread books one acquires or buys, without finding the time to read them. Most people know tycoon, to refer to an opulently wealthy business magnate, and honcho, for chief, are derived from Japanese, as (of course) is karaoke. Kids will tell you about the Japanese terms manga (comic books and graphic novels) and anime (a reverse usage from the English “animation”); elegant homemakers will know bonsai, ikebana, and origami from their décor. Even more people speak of ramen noodles and sleep on a futon without realising these words came from Japanese too. But there are several other Japanese words which – though not as widely understood as “rendezvous” (from French) or zeitgeist (from German) – are nonetheless finding increasing acceptance in English, as words that describe something better than any existing words in our dictionaries.

My favourite Japanese loanword is probably wabi-sabi, a marvellous term that means accepting imperfection as a natural part of life. The Japanese are actually perfectionists – spotlessly clean, neat, and well-organised – so it may surprise you that they have developed a philosophical acceptance of the idea that not everything is perfect, permanent, or immutable; things and people eventually decay and die. An attitude of wabi-sabi also extends to aesthetics, like admiring an object because of a natural flaw in it rather than demanding that it be blemish-free.

Better known is perhaps ikigai, a term that summarises your sense of purpose in life. More and more I find New Age friends referring to some source of motivation as ikigai – the sense of purpose that drives them on to taking on demanding new challenges. Someone whose ikigai hasn’t yet been ignited might be boketto, unfocused and daydreaming, staring vacantly into space, aimless and unpurposeful.

Japanese culture not only gives us such words as geisha, haiku, kimono, wasabi, and zen, as well as several terms from Japanese martial arts, such as judo, ju-jitsu, karate, and ninja, but also dojo (a room or padded mat for judo). Japanese also has some lovely terms for people and relationships that English culture did not generate. A friend you can always rely upon in times of need, someone who will always be there for you, is majime, a word which encapsulates a number of qualities – reliability, sincerity, willingness to put in the hard yards. It’s unlikely that a majime can be an ozappa, a person who is totally relaxed, unfazed by adversity and, by and large, couldn’t care less about anything at all. A very different kind of relationship is conjured up by Koi No Yokan, the feeling you get when you meet a stranger and are so taken by her or him that you are sure you will fall in love with them – even if you have just met them.

Just as the Eskimo language is said to have 17 different words for different types of snow and ice to distinguish them (whereas Hindi, for instance, just has “baraf” to cover both snow and ice, since Hindi speakers see so little of either), so also Japanese has very precise words for weather. The word kogarashi, literally “leaf wilting wind”, has made its way into English usage to refer to the first cold winds of the late autumn season that alert you that winter is around the corner.

American English has become fond of the word skosh, a synonym of “tad” or “smidgen” – such as in “could you turn the air-conditioning up a skosh”? It comes from the Japanese word sukoshu which means the same thing – a spot, a dash. (You could ask an Indian waiter for a skosh of milk in your tea, but I wouldn’t be optimistic about the results.) Indians assume that the English word rickshaw, pronounced raksha in Hindi, originated in the subcontinent, but in fact, it comes from the Japanese jinrikisha – jin means “man”, riki means “strength” or “power,” and sha means “carriage”.

But why worry about words at all, you might well ask, when the Japanese have given us emojis, those clever little pictures that serve increasingly as a substitute for text? Perhaps we should just say sayonara to the whole subject?

In a tweet critising the media attacks on actor Shah Rukh Khan’s 23-year-old son, I decried the “ghoulish epicaricacy” that animated this all-out assault on the young man. My use of the word epicaricacy, meaning deriving pleasure from the misfortunes of others, sent many scurrying to the dictionary. Amusingly enough several objected that I need not have employed such an obscure English word when there was a perfectly adequate substitute available from German – schadenfreude, a word far more commonly used in English to describe the malicious satisfaction that some people gain from seeing others suffer!

This is true – schadenfreude is more often used than epicaricacy – and it points to the remarkable capacity of the English language to absorb infusions from elsewhere. Where a foreign language has a word that precisely connotes something, English is happy to embrace it. And a surprising number of these borrowed words come from German, a language more commonly associated with long, polysyllabic formulations that are usually considered hard to pronounce and harder to spell!

More commonly used and therefore familiar to readers of English-language newspapers would be words like angst, ersatz, kitsch, hinterland, leitmotiv, realpolitik, and wanderlust – words that are so common they are not even italicized in English and many don’t even realize they were borrowed from German. Kitsch describes cheap, often gaudy art or tourist trinkets, and is used with a sneer to refer to items purchased by people with poor taste. Some of those items might be ersatz, a German word meaning “replacement” that’s used in English to refer to a cheap, inferior substitute for something. (“That ersatz plastic statuette was such a piece of kitsch! why did she buy it?”) Hinterland is the inland trade region or district behind a port and served by it, often bordering a coast or river and claimed by the state that owns the coast. Realpolitik, which may gradually be falling into disuse in English, refers to the practice of hard-nosed power politics to pursue a country’s national interests without heed to moral or ethical considerations. (It was first devised in German to describe the policies of the Prussian statesman Otto von Bismarck in the second half of the nineteenth century, and the term stuck.) Realpolitik was the leitmotiv of his foreign policy (leitmotiv being another German term, this time used in music, for a dominant and recurring theme).

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A fabulous story, or spilling etymological beans

Origin Uncertain: Unraveling the Mysteries of Etymology

Anatoly Liberman's column on word origins,  The Oxford Etymologist , appears on the OUPblog each Wednesday. Subscribe to Anatoly Liberman’s weekly etymology articles via  email  or  RSS .

• By Anatoly Liberman
• August 28 th 2024

For a long time, I have been trying to learn something about the source of the idiom to spill the beans “to divulge a secret” but discovered nothing. Though the Internet is full of vague suggestions, no one knows the origin of this phrase (which, incidentally, is a fairly common case with idioms). As just indicated, neither do I. Yet at the end of this essay, a rather disappointing hypothesis will be offered, and in the absence of more substantive ideas I thought it might be reasonable to touch on the origin of bean , a word that perhaps presents more interest than the evasive idiom.

The great sixth-century scholar Isidore of Seville was the author of a book titled Etymologiae , that is, “Etymologies,” one of the most famous works written in the Middle Ages. After Isidore, etymology as a branch of linguistics had to wait for more than a thousand years before turning into some semblance of science. However, we read ancient and medieval theories of word origins, from Plato on, with interest, because the tortuous history of human thought is not less instructive than the achievements of our time and because occasionally old scholars guessed well. In Isidore’s days (as well as before and long after him), learned people derived all words of European languages from Hebrew, Greek, or Latin.

As regards bean , or rather Latin faba , Isidore derived it from Greek phago – “eat(ing).” English speakers know phago – from the compounds sarcophagus and esophagus . Isidore’s idea outlived him by many centuries. Yet it inspires little confidence. Significant is only his comment: “Because beans are the first vegetables for humans.” In this respect, he was certainly right: beans have accompanied people through their entire history. Those who doubt it should read or reread John Steinbeck ’s charming story “ Tortilla Flat , ” as well as the immortal fairy tale Jack and the Beanstalk . Finally, pay attention to the Latin name Fabius, which means “grower of beans.” One does not get such a name for nothing. By the way, Isidore consumed the beans, today known as Vicia faba , while our variety is called Phaseolus vulgaris and stems from America.

As far as English is concerned, let us first note that the same word for “bean” has been recorded in all the Old Germanic languages (the differences are due only to the vagaries of historical phonetics): Old English bēan , Old High German bōna (the modern form is Bohne ), Middle Dutch bone (Modern Dutch boon ), and Old Norse baun . Plinius mentioned the Frisian island Baunonia, apparently, “Land of beans.” The Common Germanic form must have sounded baun -.

Why, centuries and centuries ago, did people call this vegetable baun -? Similar forms have been recorded all over the place. For instance, the Slavic word for “bean” is somewhat like the Germanic one, namely bob . It has been suggested that bob is a sound-imitative word (like English phut or pooh – pooh ). Presumably, beans split with some noise. In the Grimms’ tale “ Straw, Coal, and Bean ,” the bean splits with laughter at seeing its companions perish. Why this event tickled the bean to death is a special subject, but we may assume that some noise did accompany the splitting. Anyway, a tailor who happened to be close by sowed the patient together (hence, we are told, to this day, a black seam appears in the middle of all beans).

Bob (the Slavic form) may have gone back to some form like bha-bh(a) . Monosyllables beginning with and ending in the same stop , such as dud , tut , gig , tut , kick , pop (and bob !) do look like onomatopoeic creations. But Germanic baun – is unlike the Slavic word bob – in that it lacks the second b . Attempts to reconstruct some ancient Indo-European protoform like babn-o , with the loss of the second b in Germanic, are among the many sterile exercises plaguing etymological algebra. Conversely, initial f in Latin and initial b in Germanic are a regular match: both go to the consonant b h .

Rather probably, the two forms ( baun -, its root being bau -, and bob -) emerged independently, even if the impulse that produced them was similar. Considering the fact that beans were known to Germanic speakers very long ago, one wonders whether the name of the vegetable might be borrowed from some indigenous speakers, that is, from the people who inhabited their land before the Germanic invaders (we may call them newcomers, because we have no evidence testifying to an invasion) and whose language is now lost beyond recovery. Such words taken over from an unknown language are covered by the term substrate . In our case, this guesswork is unproductive, because we have no information about that hypothetical language or about the previous settlers.

Let me finish this part of the essay with a bit of humor. Two phrases have been recorded in British dialects: Bob’s a dying and kick up Bob’s a-dying . Both mean “boisterous merriment; to make a great noise.” No one knows their origin, but it may not be quite fortuitous that the proper name Bob was chosen for the occasion (not Jack, let alone Tom, Dick, or Harry): perhaps it still evokes the idea of ruckus. I am now returning to the proverbial saying. Why do we say to spill the beans ? Everything is puzzling about it. The phrase surfaced late: no attestation in print before the beginning of the twentieth century. It looks like an American coinage (in any case, the first examples are from American media). And we don’t know what situation inspired the idiom. Who in real life used to spill beans and thus “leak” precious information? Even the image of beans being spilled is far from clear.

I have no answer to the riddle, but it is curious how often beans appears in idioms. An amusing British regional saying, which was current at least as early as the eighteen-thirties, sounded so: “To know how many beans make five,” that is, to be fully aware of one’s interests (a reference to some forgotten game?), while not to know beans still means “to be ignorant.” “Not to care a bean” is a synonym for “not to care a thing, a fig, a brass farthing” (or “a hill of beans”!), and so forth. To get beans means “to be punished,” to give somebody beans “to beat to a pulp,” and so it goes down to cool beans “great job.” This environment provides no clue to the phrase that interests us, but it shows that beans has long been a favorite element of idiomatic sayings (even more so than nuts ). Beans is also ubiquitous in the context of sex. This is surprising, seeing that beans, even though, as noted above, have played an outstanding role in human history, are no longer the most important part of our diet, while all the idioms with beans are or seem to be recent. (Incidentally, when Russian speakers draw blank, they are said to be left on (the) beans. Why? The phrase is ostat’sia na bobakh .)

Perhaps the phrase to spill the beans simply joined many others containing the overused word. Oscar Wilde once wrote a tale titled “ Sphinx without a Secret .” The tale is not one of his masterpieces, but the title is brilliant. Isn’t our idiom such a sphinx? You get beans, you give somebody beans, you spill beans. Why bother? I conclude: no need crying over spilled beans.

Featured image by Elizabeth Tyler Wolcott, Digital Commonwealth via Wikimedia Commons . Public domain.

Anatoly Liberman  is the author of  Word Origins And How We Know Them ,   An Analytic Dictionary of English Etymology: An Introduction , and  Take My Word For It: A Dictionary of English Idioms .

Anatoly's latest book,  Origin Uncertain: Unraveling the Mysteries of Etymology  (OUP, 2024), is available to pre-order. 

His column on word origins,  The Oxford Etymologist , appears on the OUPblog each Wednesday. Send your etymology question to him care of  [email protected] ; he’ll do his best to avoid responding with “origin unknown.”

Subscribe to Anatoly Liberman’s weekly etymology articles via  email  or  RSS .

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Recent Comments

That some “don’t know beans” suggests others do know beans. Positive and negative also apply in bean brain versus use you bean. Beans grow in pods. If the pods get wet and then dry, beans spill. Someone who does know beans can be encouraged to spill them.

“Anyway, a tailor who happened to be close by sowed the patient together”

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