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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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15+ Case Study Examples for Business, Marketing & Sales

Written by: Alice Corner Jan 12, 2023

Have you ever bought something — within the last 10 years or so — without reading its reviews or without a recommendation or prior experience of using it?

If the answer is no — or at least, rarely — you get my point.

Positive reviews matter for selling to regular customers, and for B2B or SaaS businesses, detailed case studies are important too.

Wondering how to craft a compelling case study ? No worries—I’ve got you covered with 15 marketing case study templates , helpful tips, and examples to ensure your case study converts effectively.

Click to jump ahead:

What is a case study?

What to include in a professional case study, business case study examples, simple case study examples, marketing case study examples, sales case study examples.

• Case study FAQs

A case study is an in-depth, detailed analysis of a specific real-world situation. For example, a case study can be about an individual, group, event, organization, or phenomenon. The purpose of a case study is to understand its complexities and gain insights into a particular instance or situation.

In the context of a business, however, case studies take customer success stories and explore how they use your product to help them achieve their business goals.

As well as being valuable marketing tools , case studies are a good way to evaluate your product as it allows you to objectively examine how others are using it.

It’s also a good way to interview your customers about why they work with you.

Related: What is a Case Study? [+6 Types of Case Studies]

A professional case study showcases how your product or services helped potential clients achieve their business goals. You can also create case studies of internal, successful marketing projects. A professional case study typically includes:

• Company background and history
• The challenge
• How you helped
• Specific actions taken
• Visuals or Data
• Client testimonials

Here’s an example of a case study template:

Whether you’re a B2B or B2C company, business case studies can be a powerful resource to help with your sales, marketing, and even internal departmental awareness.

Business and business management case studies should encompass strategic insights alongside anecdotal and qualitative findings, like in the business case study examples below.

Conduct a B2B case study by researching the company holistically

When it comes to writing a case study, make sure you approach the company holistically and analyze everything from their social media to their sales.

Think about every avenue your product or service has been of use to your case study company, and ask them about the impact this has had on their wider company goals.

In business case study examples like the one above, we can see that the company has been thought about holistically simply by the use of icons.

By combining social media icons with icons that show in-person communication we know that this is a well-researched and thorough case study.

This case study report example could also be used within an annual or end-of-year report.

Highlight the key takeaway from your marketing case study

To create a compelling case study, identify the key takeaways from your research. Use catchy language to sum up this information in a sentence, and present this sentence at the top of your page.

This is “at a glance” information and it allows people to gain a top-level understanding of the content immediately. 

You can use a large, bold, contrasting font to help this information stand out from the page and provide interest.

Learn  how to choose fonts  effectively with our Venngage guide and once you’ve done that.

Upload your fonts and  brand colors  to Venngage using the  My Brand Kit  tool and see them automatically applied to your designs.

The heading is the ideal place to put the most impactful information, as this is the first thing that people will read.

In this example, the stat of “Increase[d] lead quality by 90%” is used as the header. It makes customers want to read more to find out how exactly lead quality was increased by such a massive amount.

If you’re conducting an in-person interview, you could highlight a direct quote or insight provided by your interview subject.

Pick out a catchy sentence or phrase, or the key piece of information your interview subject provided and use that as a way to draw a potential customer in.

Use charts to visualize data in your business case studies

Charts are an excellent way to visualize data and to bring statistics and information to life. Charts make information easier to understand and to illustrate trends or patterns.

Making charts is even easier with Venngage.

In this consulting case study example, we can see that a chart has been used to demonstrate the difference in lead value within the Lead Elves case study.

Adding a chart here helps break up the information and add visual value to the case study. 

Using charts in your case study can also be useful if you’re creating a project management case study.

You could use a Gantt chart or a project timeline to show how you have managed the project successfully.

Use direct quotes to build trust in your marketing case study

To add an extra layer of authenticity you can include a direct quote from your customer within your case study.

According to research from Nielsen , 92% of people will trust a recommendation from a peer and 70% trust recommendations even if they’re from somebody they don’t know.

So if you have a customer or client who can’t stop singing your praises, make sure you get a direct quote from them and include it in your case study.

You can either lift part of the conversation or interview, or you can specifically request a quote. Make sure to ask for permission before using the quote.

This design uses a bright contrasting speech bubble to show that it includes a direct quote, and helps the quote stand out from the rest of the text.

This will help draw the customer’s attention directly to the quote, in turn influencing them to use your product or service.

Less is often more, and this is especially true when it comes to creating designs. Whilst you want to create a professional-looking, well-written and design case study – there’s no need to overcomplicate things.

These simple case study examples show that smart clean designs and informative content can be an effective way to showcase your successes.

Use colors and fonts to create a professional-looking case study

Business case studies shouldn’t be boring. In fact, they should be beautifully and professionally designed.

This means the normal rules of design apply. Use fonts, colors, and icons to create an interesting and visually appealing case study.

In this case study example, we can see how multiple fonts have been used to help differentiate between the headers and content, as well as complementary colors and eye-catching icons.

Marketing case studies are incredibly useful for showing your marketing successes. Every successful marketing campaign relies on influencing a consumer’s behavior, and a great case study can be a great way to spotlight your biggest wins.

In the marketing case study examples below, a variety of designs and techniques to create impactful and effective case studies.

Show off impressive results with a bold marketing case study

Case studies are meant to show off your successes, so make sure you feature your positive results prominently. Using bold and bright colors as well as contrasting shapes, large bold fonts, and simple icons is a great way to highlight your wins.

In well-written case study examples like the one below, the big wins are highlighted on the second page with a bright orange color and are highlighted in circles.

Making the important data stand out is especially important when attracting a prospective customer with marketing case studies.

Use a simple but clear layout in your case study

Using a simple layout in your case study can be incredibly effective, like in the example of a case study below.

Keeping a clean white background, and using slim lines to help separate the sections is an easy way to format your case study.

Making the information clear helps draw attention to the important results, and it helps improve the  accessibility of the design .

Business case study examples like this would sit nicely within a larger report, with a consistent layout throughout.

Use visuals and icons to create an engaging and branded business case study

Nobody wants to read pages and pages of text — and that’s why Venngage wants to help you communicate your ideas visually.

Using icons, graphics, photos, or patterns helps create a much more engaging design. 

With this Blue Cap case study icons, colors, and impactful pattern designs have been used to create an engaging design that catches your eye.

Use a monochromatic color palette to create a professional and clean case study

Let your research shine by using a monochromatic and minimalistic color palette.

By sticking to one color, and leaving lots of blank space you can ensure your design doesn’t distract a potential customer from your case study content.

In this case study on Polygon Media, the design is simple and professional, and the layout allows the prospective customer to follow the flow of information.

The gradient effect on the left-hand column helps break up the white background and adds an interesting visual effect.

Did you know you can generate an accessible color palette with Venngage? Try our free accessible color palette generator today and create a case study that delivers and looks pleasant to the eye:

Add long term goals in your case study

When creating a case study it’s a great idea to look at both the short term and the long term goals of the company to gain the best understanding possible of the insights they provide.

Short-term goals will be what the company or person hopes to achieve in the next few months, and long-term goals are what the company hopes to achieve in the next few years.

Check out this modern pattern design example of a case study below:

In this case study example, the short and long-term goals are clearly distinguished by light blue boxes and placed side by side so that they are easy to compare.

Use a strong introductory paragraph to outline the overall strategy and goals before outlining the specific short-term and long-term goals to help with clarity.

This strategy can also be handy when creating a consulting case study.

Use data to make concrete points about your sales and successes

When conducting any sort of research stats, facts, and figures are like gold dust (aka, really valuable).

Being able to quantify your findings is important to help understand the information fully. Saying sales increased 10% is much more effective than saying sales increased.

While sales dashboards generally tend it make it all about the numbers and charts, in sales case study examples, like this one, the key data and findings can be presented with icons. This contributes to the potential customer’s better understanding of the report.

They can clearly comprehend the information and it shows that the case study has been well researched.

Use emotive, persuasive, or action based language in your marketing case study

Create a compelling case study by using emotive, persuasive and action-based language when customizing your case study template.

In this well-written case study example, we can see that phrases such as “Results that Speak Volumes” and “Drive Sales” have been used.

Using persuasive language like you would in a blog post. It helps inspire potential customers to take action now.

Keep your potential customers in mind when creating a customer case study for marketing

82% of marketers use case studies in their marketing  because it’s such an effective tool to help quickly gain customers’ trust and to showcase the potential of your product.

Why are case studies such an important tool in content marketing?

By writing a case study you’re telling potential customers that they can trust you because you’re showing them that other people do.

Not only that, but if you have a SaaS product, business case studies are a great way to show how other people are effectively using your product in their company.

In this case study, Network is demonstrating how their product has been used by Vortex Co. with great success; instantly showing other potential customers that their tool works and is worth using.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

Case studies are particularly effective as a sales technique.

A sales case study is like an extended customer testimonial, not only sharing opinions of your product – but showcasing the results you helped your customer achieve.

Make impactful statistics pop in your sales case study

Writing a case study doesn’t mean using text as the only medium for sharing results.

You should use icons to highlight areas of your research that are particularly interesting or relevant, like in this example of a case study:

Icons are a great way to help summarize information quickly and can act as visual cues to help draw the customer’s attention to certain areas of the page.

In some of the business case study examples above, icons are used to represent the impressive areas of growth and are presented in a way that grabs your attention.

Use high contrast shapes and colors to draw attention to key information in your sales case study

Help the key information stand out within your case study by using high contrast shapes and colors.

Use a complementary or contrasting color, or use a shape such as a rectangle or a circle for maximum impact.

This design has used dark blue rectangles to help separate the information and make it easier to read.

Coupled with icons and strong statistics, this information stands out on the page and is easily digestible and retainable for a potential customer.

Case study examples summary

Once you have created your case study, it’s best practice to update your examples on a regular basis to include up-to-date statistics, data, and information.

You should update your business case study examples often if you are sharing them on your website .

It’s also important that your case study sits within your brand guidelines – find out how Venngage’s My Brand Kit tool can help you create consistently branded case study templates.

Case studies are important marketing tools – but they shouldn’t be the only tool in your toolbox. Content marketing is also a valuable way to earn consumer trust.

Case study FAQ s

Why should you write a case study.

Case studies are an effective marketing technique to engage potential customers and help build trust.

By producing case studies featuring your current clients or customers, you are showcasing how your tool or product can be used. You’re also showing that other people endorse your product.

In addition to being a good way to gather positive testimonials from existing customers, business case studies are good educational resources and can be shared amongst your company or team, and used as a reference for future projects.

How should you write a case study?

To create a great case study, you should think strategically. The first step, before starting your case study research, is to think about what you aim to learn or what you aim to prove.

You might be aiming to learn how a company makes sales or develops a new product. If this is the case, base your questions around this.

You can learn more about writing a case study  from our extensive guide.

Related: How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

Some good questions you could ask would be:

• Why do you use our tool or service?
• How often do you use our tool or service?
• What does the process of using our product look like to you?
• If our product didn’t exist, what would you be doing instead?
• What is the number one benefit you’ve found from using our tool?

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Case Study: Should Some Employees Be Allowed to Work Remotely Even If Others Can’t?

• Mark C. Bolino
• Corey Phelps

An Oklahoma-based energy company grapples with its return-to-office plan.

More than 3,000 office workers at an oil and gas company in Oklahoma City have been telecommuting since the start of the Covid-19 pandemic. Many of them love the arrangement, and the freedom to work remotely is also a big draw for new hires. But there are downsides: Employees who have to be on-site in the oil fields and on drilling rigs are resentful; collaboration and knowledge transfer are more challenging; costly office space is going unused; and local businesses are suffering because of the emptiness of the downtown core. The company’s CEO must decide: Should we mandate a return to the office for everyone? This fictional case study features expert commentary by Logitech’s Bracken Darrell and Spotify’s Katarina Berg.

Sean Lewis, the CEO of Vallia Energy, stared at the message screen on his phone and prayed for three little dots.

• Mark C. Bolino is the David L. Boren Professor and the Michael F. Price Chair in International Business at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business. His research focuses on understanding how an organization can inspire its employees to go the extra mile without compromising their personal well-being.
• CP Corey Phelps is the dean, the Fred E. Brown Chair of Business, and a professor of entrepreneurship and strategy at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business. His research explores how organizations innovate, grow, and adapt to changing competitive conditions.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
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• Types of Structured Group Activities
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• Multiple Book Review Essay
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• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
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• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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The shift to extremes: rethinking office design, what workplace design can learn from higher education facilities, clarity, consistency, and communication within change management, designing for neurodiversity and inclusion, chair of the month.

While at the Circularity 24 conference in Chicago, WDM’s Cynthia Milota sat down with Project Director, Jessica Heiges, to discuss what it takes to design and operate a zero waste building. As a TRUE Zero Waste Advisor for the Chou Hall project team at UC Berkeley, Jessica’s focus was then and is now on sustainable and just transitions to waste-free systems.

A net zero waste building is operated to reduce, reuse, recycle, compost or recover solid waste streams thereby resulting in no waste disposal to landfills or incinerators.

Federal Energy Management Program

Chou Hall – UC Berkeley Haas School

Chou Hall was the first a TRUE Zero Waste academic building, certified in 2019. TRUE is a “zero waste certification program that guides facilities, portfolios, events and construction sites to design waste out of their system,” (Byrne, 2023).  Today there are over 300 facilities in 28 countries that have received the TRUE certification. 

TRUE projects have diverted over 5.6 million tons from the world’s waste streams.

USGBC, 2023

Cynthia Milota (CM): What is Chou Hall’s story? How did the project come to be and how were you involved.

Jessica Heiges (JH): The Chou Hall zero waste building initiative was the result of a perfect alignment of forces. The project had buy-in from all necessary stakeholders across campus – leadership, facilities and the student body – who were motivated to support innovative sustainability solutions. The Haas School of Business wanted to be a “living laboratory” where sustainability solutions could be tested, applied and learned, moving beyond just theory taught in the classroom.

The Haas Dean and COO at the time were also highly supportive of this initiative – and had the initial funds to back it. Chou Hall was newly built, slated to open in October of 2017. The building was already on track to receive LEED and WELL certification, so Haas aimed for the “trifecta” by also obtaining TRUE certification. Additionally, the primary donor for Chou Hall deeply believed in and advocated for innovation and sustainability.

I started my master’s program in zero waste + circularity in August 2017. A classmate of mine was already involved in the project; and once he learned of my interest in and capacity to support the certification program, he brought me onto the team. 

CM: What are the goals of a TRUE certification, and what is the process?  

JH:   To receive the GBCI TRUE certification , a facility must have 12 consecutive months of a 90%+ diversion-from-landfill (diversion) rate. It is important to note that incineration, including waste-to-energy, is not considered a diversion method. Facilities also need to demonstrate a documented baseline year of waste diversion data and maintain a contamination rate below 10% for all outgoing waste streams.

The TRUE certification process involves earning credits across 15 categories, including innovation, upstream waste management practices, staff training and reporting. Unlike other certification programs, TRUE takes a holistic approach, aiming to influence not just on-site waste management, but also upstream and downstream practices within the supply chain. To keep their certification current, facilities must maintain a diversion rate above 90% and submit annual reports.

CM: What are some lessons learned in the certification process and in the on-going operations of Chou Hall?  

JH: Since its certification, Chou Hall continues to excel. It remains a shining example of a successful zero waste implementation, serving as a key differentiator between Haas and other sustainability-minded MBA programs. It has become a north star for other buildings on campus and is now expanding to include other buildings in the Haas ecosystem.

Throughout the two years of working toward zero waste at Chou Hall, our team learned a great deal. Some of the most significant learnings and recommendations that resulted from our experience include:

• Early stakeholder engagement: Get key decision-makers on board early. Clearly define their roles in the initiative and keep them informed to generate buy-in throughout the process.
• Comprehensive education: Develop a multi-channel education campaign tailored to your specific audience and deliver it persistently. Effective communication is crucial for success.
• Strong program management: Assemble a passionate and dedicated team to manage the program. Setbacks are inevitable, so a methodical approach and strong stakeholder relationships are essential.
• Funding matters: Verbal support isn’t enough. Secure dedicated, recurring and sufficient funding to support the initiative’s infrastructure and ongoing operations.
• Planning for events: Events often generate far more waste than anticipated, and managing waste during events requires careful planning to navigate competing priorities and resource limitations.
• Waste audits are powerful: Conduct waste audits (also known as waste characterization studies) to gain valuable insights into the types and volumes of waste generated. This will help you target your efforts and refine your program. Waste audits can also be a great engagement tool: getting community members involved by having them sort trash while wearing hazmat suits!

CM: You mentioned that the success of zero waste facilities is largely due to a partnership between the site facilities team, the owner and the various consultants. Can you elaborate on this partnership and why its so crucial?

JH:   Facility staff are the backbone of zero waste implementation and maintenance. They implement the infrastructure changes needed to promote zero waste, such as installing compost and recycling bins and dishwashers. Custodial and janitorial staff are essential as they ultimately ensure proper waste sorting, placing waste in the designated bins for collection and preventing contamination.

Building owners play a key role in approving components within a facility as well, such as installing dishwashers, which is vital for reducing waste. Their support is essential for unlocking zero waste initiatives. And lastly, the success of any zero waste program hinges on the cooperation of building occupants. This means properly sorting waste and avoiding unnecessary printing. 

CM: How does the familiar camping phrase “pack-in, pack out” apply to Zero Waste buildings?  

JH : The “pack-in, pack-out” mentality is essential for zero waste practices. The core idea is two-fold:

• It is based on an understanding that we should not bring and leave our waste elsewhere, and
• It creates a “nudge of inconvenience.” By making it less convenient to throw away waste, individuals may be less inclined to engage in waste-generating practices.

That said, it is not a solution for every situation, and it is important to recognize accessibility concerns. Not all individuals have equal access to reusable versus single-use consumption items. Accessibility can vary based on a variety of factors, and there are financial and time constraints to choosing less convenient consumption practices. Physical constraints can be a barrier as well for those with disabilities who may not have the option to choose reusable consumption (e.g. drinking a beverage without a straw).

Yet ultimately, the “pack-in, pack-out” mentality aims to view all locations like the wilderness and make a conscious effort to monitor and minimize our negative impact. It is one tactic to promote behavioral change toward reducing our current unsustainable rate of waste generation.

Chou Hall does not have any landfill bins. You heard it right! Their pack-in, pack-out policy for trash helps students and staff be aware of the waste they generate. 

Northern California Recycling Association

CM: How has Chou Hall influenced the operation of other buildings on the Berkeley campus? Do you see overall student behavior changing regarding waste generation?   

JH: UC Berkeley has developed its own zero waste program embodying many principles from the TRUE certification, which is being implemented in buildings across campus. Though not certified by TRUE, all new buildings at UC Berkeley are designed to be zero waste. There is a clear change in student behavior – they are taking more ownership and pride in the sustainability of their campus. Across campus there are student-generated signs, programs, clubs and policies in support of waste reduction education and infrastructural and programmatic change. It is powerful and energizing. Having that kind of student engagement is not unique but makes an impact toward achieving such ambitious sustainability goals.

Getting Started in your Workplace

To get started on a Zero Waste journey at your office, Dr. Nick Becker provides “18 Zero-Waste Tips to Implement in the Workplace,” (Becker, 2024).  Here are some concepts to get started.

For the complete list visit ClimateSort/zero-waste-tips.

More strategic zero waste strategies include encouraging employee and customer ideas on sustainability, going beyond pilots to create long-term initiatives for zero office waste. Partner with the facilities team, building management and your community to highlight zero waste initiatives. 

Chou Hall is a stand-out example of a zero waste building, holding the TRUE certification and positively influencing zero waste around the entire UC Berkeley campus. Functioning as a zero waste facility for 6 years, the success of the Chou Hall project in planning and on-going operation is dependent on effective collaboration between the facility staff, building owners, building users and consultants. Eliminating waste can be accomplished by reducing, reusing, recycling and composting to divert waste from landfills or incinerators. 

Becker, N., 2024. “18 Zero-waste tips to implement in the workplace,” Retrieved from: https://climatesort.com/zero-waste-tips/ Byrne, S., 2023. “300 TRUE projects are embodying net zero waste,” Retrieved from https://www.usgbc.org/articles/300-true-projects-are-embodying-net-zero-waste

Photos courtesy of UC Berkeley Haas School of Business.

• building community
• circular economy
• Cynthia Milota
• Jessica Heiges
• sustainability
• TRUE certification
• UC Berkeley Haas School

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Serving her country is literally in her DNA.

With multiple family connections to the military Robecca grew up with a strong sense of duty and a desire to serve her country.

She specialises in the ethics, law and governance of AI -enabled defence and security capabilities, and said she is proud to work for the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory ( Dstl ) with its focus on keeping our Armed Forces safe.

AI Ethics in Action

Robecca said:

“My family connections to the military have been a source of inspiration for me to come and work for Dstl .

“It is that sense of shared values…sense of duty and service is something we share in common even though I am not in uniform.

“I wanted to do something meaningful with my life and give back to my country. Working for Dstl is my way of doing that.”

Robecca’s career

After graduating with a first-class honours degree in forensic psychobiology Robecca worked at the Atomic Weapons Establishment.

Building on her experience in the defence industry, her Dstl career began at the organisations’s Salisbury headquarters 7 years ago, before she worked remotely for 18 months from a military base in New York, USA, as a military spouse.

After returning to the UK, Robecca joined the inaugural Newcastle team when the new site opened in 2022 and where her work helps shape the defence and security landscape.

“I work at the intersection of what technology can do and what technology should do.

“I make sure that the checks and balances - in terms of ethics, laws, international standards and regulations - are applied to the development and use of artificial intelligence.

“The most exciting thing about my role is working directly with development teams on novel AI capabilities.”

Robecca also says that the rapid evolution of both AI and its surrounding ethical, legal and regulatory landscape make this a complex but critical responsibility.

While on maternity leave, Robecca learned that she had been named one of the global 100 Brilliant Women in AI Ethics 2024 – an accolade recognising her dedication to this work.

“I work with a lot of really clever people that I admire. I have made a particular effort recently to try and find mentors from other organisations as well; people whose careers I may want to follow. It’s important to show, particularly younger women maybe just starting out in their careers or at secondary school, that there are opportunities like this for people like you.”

Her day in the office can range from leading international workshops to taking part in research trials in the field, with military personnel, and land, air and sea platforms.

Running a Five Eyes workshop

“I’m most proud of a workshop I ran with about 80 military lawyers and academics from across the Five Eyes - that’s the UK, the US, Australia, Canada and New Zealand.

“That was an opportunity for these lawyers to work together on legal reviews of AI -enabled weapons; exploring the similarities and differences of our approaches, in order to foresee challenges and opportunities to interoperability so that if we were deployed on allied missions, how we might use, share or transfer capabilities or where tensions and difficulties may emerge.

“I’m proud of that because I’m not a lawyer. I almost felt I didn’t deserve at the table but I ended up leading it.”

In her free time, Robecca likes to travel and writes poetry for her children. However, some of her most exciting challenges have come through work.

Highlight of working at Dstl

“The coolest thing I have done at Dstl was probably collecting data during a military exercise which was hosted in a fort, on a cliff edge. We had Blackhawk helicopters popping up out of nowhere, Chinooks flying overhead, and there was a ship at sea.

“In the pitch black we were standing at the top of this fort looking down on an ‘attack’ unfolding. The only way we could see what was going on was by the red of the flare in the sky.

“I remember thinking to myself ‘I can’t believe I’m getting paid to do this because this is something I would have paid to experience.’ It was extraordinary. And that’s exactly the kind of career I want!”

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Written Samples

15 sample cover letters for work study position.

You’ve found the perfect work-study position to help pay for college expenses while gaining valuable real-world experience.

But before you can land the job, you need to write a compelling cover letter that will make you stand out from the competition.

Cover letters are your chance to sell yourself to potential employers, highlighting your relevant skills, experiences, and enthusiasm for the role.

But knowing what to say and how to say it can be tricky, especially if you’re new to the job market.

Sample Cover Letters for Work Study Position

To help you get started, we’ve compiled 15 sample cover letters specifically tailored for work-study positions.

These examples cover a range of industries and job types, from office assistants to lab technicians to social media interns.

Use these samples as inspiration for structuring and wording your unique cover letter.

Customize them with your details and personality to create a letter that truly represents you and your fit for the position.

Ready to get noticed and get hired?

Let’s dive into our 15 standout sample cover letters for work-study roles.

Subject: Application for Marketing Assistant Work Study Position

Dear Hiring Manager,

I am excited to apply for the Marketing Assistant work-study position at XYZ Company. As a sophomore majoring in Marketing at ABC University, I am eager to gain hands-on experience in my field while contributing my skills and enthusiasm to your marketing team.

In my coursework, I have developed a strong foundation in marketing principles, market research, and digital marketing strategies. I have also honed my communication, organization, and project management abilities through various group projects and presentations.

Additionally, I bring relevant experience from my role as Social Media Coordinator for our university’s Business Club. In this position, I created engaging social media content, monitored and responded to comments and messages, and helped grow our follower base by 25% over two semesters. I am confident I can apply these same skills to support your company’s marketing initiatives.

I am impressed by XYZ Company’s innovative products and commitment to sustainability. I would welcome the opportunity to learn from your expert team while providing quality work to support your marketing goals. My strong work ethic, adaptability, and eagerness to learn make me a great fit for this role.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume for your review. I look forward to discussing my qualifications further in an interview.

[Your Name]

Subject: Application for Research Assistant Work Study Position

Dear Dr. Johnson,

I am writing to apply for the Research Assistant work-study position in your biology lab at XYZ University. As a junior Biology major with a 3.8 GPA, I am well-prepared and passionate about gaining research experience alongside your expert team.

In my upper-level biology lab courses, I have gained extensive experience with common lab techniques including micro pipetting, gel electrophoresis, PCR, and cell culture. I am detail-oriented, meticulous in my work, and quick to master new protocols. My strong analytical and problem-solving skills will enable me to contribute effectively to your research projects.

Additionally, I served as a teaching assistant for Introductory Biology last semester. In this role, I guided students through experiments, answered questions, and graded lab reports. This experience strengthened my communication and leadership abilities, which I can apply to collaborating with your research team and mentoring incoming students.

I have a long-standing interest in your lab’s research into the molecular basis of Parkinson’s disease. I am eager for the chance to contribute to this vital work while developing my research skills under your mentorship. I am reliable, hardworking, and committed to conducting high-quality research.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume and a faculty recommendation. I would welcome the chance to discuss my qualifications and enthusiasm for this position in more detail.

Subject: Application for Graphic Design Intern Work Study Position

Dear Ms. Thompson,

I am thrilled to apply for the Graphic Design Intern work-study position at ABC Creative Agency. As a senior Graphic Design major with a passion for branding and print design, I am excited by the opportunity to apply my skills in a fast-paced agency setting.

Through my coursework and design projects, I have developed advanced proficiency in Adobe Creative Suite, particularly InDesign, Illustrator, and Photoshop. I have experience designing logos, brochures, posters, packaging, and other print materials for a variety of client types. I pride myself on my creativity, attention to detail, and ability to translate client needs into impactful designs.

I also bring relevant experience from my freelance design work, where I have collaborated with several small businesses and campus organizations. Through these projects, I have honed my skills in client communication, project management, and working efficiently to meet deadlines. I am confident I can apply these same strengths to support your design team and clients.

I am drawn to ABC Creative Agency’s inventive designs and commitment to delivering top-notch creative solutions. I would relish the chance to learn industry best practices from your talented team while utilizing my design capabilities to create memorable, effective materials for your clients.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume and design portfolio for your review. I look forward to the opportunity to discuss how I can contribute to ABC Creative Agency as your next Graphic Design Intern.

Subject: Application for Accounting Clerk Work Study Position

I am writing to apply for the Accounting Clerk work-study position at XYZ Corporation. As an Accounting major entering my junior year, I am excited to apply my classroom learning in a corporate accounting setting while providing diligent support to your accounting team.

In my accounting coursework, I have developed a strong foundation in financial accounting principles, managerial accounting, and tax accounting. I have experience preparing and analyzing financial statements, ledger reconciliations, and tax documents. I am highly organized, detail-oriented, and adept with accounting software including Excel, QuickBooks, and TurboTax.

Additionally, I serve as Treasurer for my university’s Accounting Club. In this role, I oversee the club’s budget, expense tracking, and financial reporting. I have honed my bookkeeping accuracy, financial analysis skills, and ability to communicate financial information. I am confident I can bring these same strengths to the Accounting Clerk position.

I am drawn to XYZ Corporation’s status as an industry leader and its reputation for financial excellence. I would welcome the opportunity to learn accounting best practices from your knowledgeable team while providing quality, thorough work to support the company’s financial functions.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume for your review. I look forward to discussing my qualifications and enthusiasm for this role in more detail.

Subject: Application for IT Help Desk Work Study Position

Dear Mr. Patel,

I am excited to apply for the IT Help Desk work-study position at ABC University. As a sophomore Computer Science major with a talent for problem-solving, I am eager to apply my technical skills while providing excellent customer service to university students, faculty, and staff.

Through my coursework in programming, databases, and networking, I have developed a broad understanding of computer systems and troubleshooting strategies. I am proficient in common programming languages, operating systems, and productivity software. I am a quick learner, adept at explaining technical concepts, and committed to continuously expanding my IT knowledge.

Additionally, I have customer service experience from my part-time retail job, where I assist customers with product questions, recommend solutions, and process sales. I am patient, an active listener, and skilled at resolving customer issues with a positive attitude. I am confident my blend of technical and interpersonal skills will enable me to excel in the Help Desk role.

I am excited by the prospect of gaining hands-on IT support experience while contributing to the smooth technological operations of the university. I am reliable, hardworking, and committed to providing prompt, effective support to all users.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume for your review. I would appreciate the opportunity to discuss my qualifications further in an interview.

Subject: Application for Tutoring Center Work Study Position

I am writing to apply for the Tutoring Center work-study position at XYZ University. As a senior Education major with a passion for fostering student success, I am eager to apply my academic knowledge and mentoring skills to support my fellow students.

As an Honors student with a 3.9 GPA, I have excelled in courses across disciplines including math, science, English, and foreign languages. My broad knowledge base, combined with my ability to explain concepts clearly, would enable me to tutor students effectively in a variety of subjects.

Additionally, I have extensive experience working with students through my student teaching placements. I have planned and delivered engaging lessons, worked one-on-one with struggling learners, and honed my ability to adapt my teaching style to meet diverse student needs. I am patient, encouraging, and skilled at building rapport with students to boost their confidence and academic performance.

I am passionate about the Tutoring Center’s mission of providing accessible academic support to ensure the success of all students. I would welcome the chance to apply my instructional skills and content mastery to empower students to reach their full academic potential.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume and faculty recommendations for your review. I look forward to discussing my qualifications and enthusiasm for this role in more detail.

Subject: Application for Social Media Intern Work Study Position

Dear Ms. Johnson,

I am thrilled to apply for the Social Media Intern work-study position at ABC Company. As a junior Marketing major with a concentration in Digital Marketing, I am eager to apply my skills and creativity to support your social media initiatives.

Through my coursework, I have developed expertise in social media strategy, content creation, and analytics. I am well-versed in major platforms including Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn, as well as tools like Hootsuite and Sprout Social. I have a keen eye for creating engaging, on-brand content and am skilled at analyzing metrics to optimize performance.

I have honed my social media skills through several projects, including developing a comprehensive social media plan for a local non-profit. My campaign helped the organization increase engagement by 40% and reach 1,000 new Followers. I am confident I can apply these same strategies to amplify ABC Company’s social presence.

Additionally, I bring strong writing, graphic design, and video editing skills that will enable me to craft compelling content for your brand. I am creative, detail-oriented, and adept at tailoring content to different audiences and platforms.

I admire ABC Company’s innovative products and customer-centric focus. I would be thrilled to contribute my social media savvy to help you expand your digital reach, engage customers, and drive business results.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume and social media portfolio for your review. I look forward to the opportunity to discuss how I can add value to your social media efforts.

Subject: Application for Writing Center Tutor Work Study Position

I am excited to apply for the Writing Center Tutor work-study position at XYZ University. As a senior English major with a 4.0 GPA, I am passionate about writing and eager to share my skills to support other students’ academic success.

In my English coursework and as Editor of the campus literary magazine, I have developed strong expertise in academic writing, research, and the writing process. I excel at crafting clear, persuasive prose and have a keen eye for identifying areas for improvement in structure, style, and mechanics. I am confident in my ability to guide students at all levels to refine their writing skills.

Additionally, I have experience as a peer mentor in the English department, where I review student papers, provide constructive feedback, and explain complex concepts. I am patient, adaptable, and skilled at asking questions to help students clarify their ideas. My approachable demeanor and strong communication skills enable me to connect with students and create a supportive learning environment.

I am excited by the prospect of helping more students become confident, capable writers through the Writing Center’s important work. I am committed to providing individualized guidance to help each student develop and clearly express their unique voice.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume and writing samples for your review. I would welcome the opportunity to discuss my qualifications and tutoring approach in more detail.

Subject: Application for Campus Tour Guide Work Study Position

Dear Mr. Johnson,

I am thrilled to apply for the Campus Tour Guide work-study position at ABC University. As a junior Communication Studies major with a deep love for our university, I am eager to share my enthusiasm with prospective students and their families.

As a highly involved student leader, I have extensive knowledge of ABC’s academic programs, extracurricular activities, campus resources, and student life. I am always eager to share my experiences and insights to help prospective students envision themselves thriving at our university. My strong public speaking skills, friendly demeanor, and passion for ABC make me a natural fit for the Tour Guide role.

Additionally, I bring relevant experience from my customer service role at the campus bookstore. In this position, I greet customers, answer questions, make product recommendations, and maintain a positive attitude. My communication skills, adaptability, and commitment to providing excellent service will translate well to guiding tours and representing ABC University.

I am excited by the opportunity to introduce future students to all that ABC has to offer. I will leverage my campus knowledge, interpersonal skills, and Panther Pride to provide informative, engaging tours that will make a lasting positive impression.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume for your review. I look forward to the chance to discuss my qualifications and enthusiasm for promoting ABC University.

Subject: Application for Student Life Assistant Work Study Position

I am writing to apply for the Student Life Assistant work-study position at XYZ University. As a sophomore highly involved in campus activities, I am passionate about enhancing the student experience and eager to contribute my skills to the Office of Student Life.

As a student leader in multiple organizations, including the Campus Activities Board and Residence Hall Association, I have firsthand experience planning and executing a variety of events from movie nights to volunteer projects to cultural celebrations. I am organized, and creative, and thrive in collaborative environments. I am confident my event planning skills will enable me to provide valuable support for Student Life initiatives.

Additionally, I bring strong communication, problem-solving, and customer service abilities from my retail job. I am adept at multi-tasking, resolving issues, and providing friendly, efficient service in fast-paced environments. I am confident I can apply these same strengths to promoting Student Life resources and supporting office operations.

I am excited by the prospect of working behind the scenes to create meaningful student development opportunities. I am committed to fostering an inclusive, engaged campus community where every student can find their place.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume for your review. I would appreciate the opportunity to discuss how I can contribute to Student Life’s mission of enriching the student experience at XYZ University.

Subject: Application for Career Center Assistant Work Study Position

I am excited to apply for the Career Center Assistant work-study position at ABC University. As a junior Human Resources major with a passion for professional development, I am eager to apply my skills while supporting the Center’s important work of preparing students for career success.

Through my HR coursework, I have gained knowledge of job search strategies, resume and cover letter writing, interviewing techniques, and career pathing. I am eager to share these insights with fellow students to help them position themselves for employment. My strong communication, active listening, and interpersonal skills will enable me to effectively assist students in identifying and pursuing their professional goals.

Additionally, I have honed my organizational and project management skills through my HR internship, where I coordinated the employee onboarding program and maintained personnel files. I am detail-oriented, efficient, and committed to providing quality support. I am confident I can apply these same strengths to assisting with Career Center workshops, resources, and administrative tasks.

I am impressed by the Career Center’s wide array of offerings to equip students with the tools to thrive in their careers. I would welcome the opportunity to help expand the Center’s reach and impact to empower more students to achieve professional fulfillment.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume for your review. I look forward to discussing my qualifications and enthusiasm for the Career Assistant role in more detail.

Subject: Application for Athletic Department Office Assistant Work Study Position

I am thrilled to apply for the Athletic Department Office Assistant work-study position at XYZ University. As a student-athlete on the women’s soccer team with strong administrative skills, I am excited to support the department’s operations while developing professionally in a sports setting.

As a member of the soccer team, I have developed valuable skills in time management, teamwork, and performing under pressure. I pride myself on my strong work ethic, coachability, and commitment to excellence both on and off the field. I am confident I can bring this same driven, team-oriented approach to the Office Assistant role.

Additionally, I have administrative experience from my part-time job at a local law firm, where I manage files, draft correspondence, and provide customer service. My strong organizational, communication, and problem-solving skills will enable me to effectively assist with department recordkeeping, event planning, and special projects. I am proficient in Microsoft Office and quick to learn new programs and processes.

I am passionate about the transformative power of college athletics and XYZ’s commitment to student-athlete success. I would be thrilled for the opportunity to contribute to the department’s mission of providing a top-notch athletic and academic experience.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume for your review. I look forward to discussing how I can apply my skills and athletics background to add value to the XYZ Athletics Department.

Subject: Application for Campus Recreation Center Guest Services Work Study Position

I am writing to apply for the Guest Services work-study position at the ABC University Campus Recreation Center. As a fitness enthusiast and sophomore Kinesiology major, I am excited to combine my passion for wellness with my customer service skills to enhance the Rec Center experience for patrons.

As a frequent user of the Rec Center myself, I have a firsthand appreciation for the important role the facility plays in supporting student health and campus life. My outgoing personality, attention to detail, and commitment to excellence in all that I do make me a great fit to welcome and assist patrons.

Additionally, my previous experience as a front desk attendant at a physical therapy clinic has honed my customer service, multi-tasking, and problem-solving abilities. I am adept at managing busy phone lines, scheduling appointments, collecting payments, and maintaining a clean, organized front office. I am confident in my ability to apply these same skills to supporting Rec Center operations and providing top-notch service.

I am energized by the opportunity to help create a positive, inclusive environment that encourages the campus community to engage in recreation and wellness. I will bring enthusiasm, professionalism, and dedication to ensuring all patrons have an excellent Rec Center experience.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume for your review. I would welcome the chance to further discuss my qualifications and passion for promoting healthy lifestyles at ABC University.

Subject: Application for Admissions Ambassador Work Study Position

I am excited to apply for the Admissions Ambassador work-study position at XYZ University. As a junior Communications major who loves sharing my XYZ experience, I am eager to apply my interpersonal skills to help prospective students discover all our university has to offer.

As a student heavily involved in residential life, Greek life, and community service through XYZ’s volunteer center, I have a deep appreciation for the diverse opportunities for growth and connection available here. My strong public speaking skills, ability to connect with diverse individuals, and passion for XYZ make me a compelling ambassador to communicate the university experience to prospective students and families.

Additionally, I bring relevant experience in student outreach from my internship in the Diversity and Inclusion Office, where I helped coordinate multicultural recruitment events and served on student panels. I am skilled at presenting information, facilitating discussions, and addressing questions. I am confident I can bring this same engaging approach to delivering admissions programming that informs and excites prospective students.

I look forward to the opportunity to share my love for XYZ and help future students envision how they can thrive here. I will bring positivity, professionalism, and strong storytelling to showcase the unparalleled XYZ experience.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume for your review. I would appreciate the chance to further discuss my qualifications and enthusiasm for the Admissions Ambassador role.

Subject: Application for Residence Life Desk Assistant Work Study Position

I am writing to apply for the Residence Life Desk Assistant work-study position at ABC University. As a sophomore Resident Advisor (RA) passionate about fostering strong, supportive living-learning communities, I am excited to contribute my skills and experience to the Residence Life team.

As an RA, I have gained valuable experience in community building, conflict resolution, crisis response, and connecting residents to campus resources. My communication, problem-solving, and interpersonal skills enable me to effectively respond to student concerns and create a welcoming environment. I am confident I can apply these same resident-centered skills to desk operations.

Additionally, I have administrative experience from my previous role as an office assistant, where I greeted visitors, answered phones, organized files, and managed schedules. My strong organizational abilities, attention to detail, and commitment to providing efficient, friendly service will translate well to supporting front desk operations and maintaining accurate records.

I am passionate about Residence Life’s mission of promoting student success and belonging through exceptional residential experiences. I am excited by the opportunity to contribute to this goal by providing top-notch customer service and support to residents.

Thank you for considering my application. I have attached my resume for your review. I look forward to discussing my qualifications and passion for serving residential students in further detail.

There you have it – 15 sample cover letters to help you land your ideal work-study position.

Remember, these are just a starting point. Use them as models and inspiration, but be sure to customize your letter to highlight your unique skills, experiences, and enthusiasm for the specific role and organization.

With a compelling, tailored cover letter, you’ll be well on your way to securing a work-study position that will provide valuable professional experience, help pay for school, and set you up for future career success.

Best of luck in your work-study job search!

The Aspen Institute

©2024 The Aspen Institute. All Rights Reserved

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Making Broadband Work for Rural Communities and Native nations

August 15, 2024  • Community Strategies Group

Featured highlights are below. Click the button above to read the full case study.

Vision: digital equity for equitable rural prosperity

There is no denying the central role of the internet in 21st-century life. Just as electricity and telephone service became essential a century ago, fast, reliable broadband is now necessary for full participation in commerce, education, healthcare, the workforce, and civic and social life.

The social distancing requirements of the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the cost of inadequate access and the deep geographic inequity that affects communities and Native nations that do not yet have reliable, affordable connectivity. The resulting push for digital inclusion is making headway, with historic levels of federal and philanthropic funding for broadband deployment in previously unserved and underserved areas. While the current public-private infrastructure effort has had significant success, serving remote and low-income areas in rural regions will require different strategies.

To understand where we are and what it will take to achieve true digital equity for rural communities and Native nations, the Aspen Institute Community Strategies Group (Aspen CSG) spoke with some of the practitioners working on the ground to deploy broadband and make sure communities can use it to advance equitable rural prosperity. These conversations identified lessons learned, gaps in current approaches, and potential models that could move the country toward full broadband coverage at a sustainable cost.

“COVID created a rush to solve persistent digital equity issues. The positive is that it meant a new appetite for funding and risk. The challenge is that there has been a focus on temporary solutions. As we move past this phase, temporary solutions will be obsolete, and without long-term solutions, there’s a danger of returning to the pre-COVID status quo.” Zaki Barzinji, Aspen Digital

What it will take to advance rural digital equity: acknowledgment, alignment, sustainability, learning

Acknowledgment : The first step toward digital equity for rural regions and Native nations is a clear acknowledgment across governments and organizations that broadband is an essential utility that all communities and people need to be able to access. Acknowledging this reality means policymakers at multiple levels of government need to grapple with how to best provide, regulate, and sustain this public good for all community members.

“We need routine investments in technology and people to provide technical assistance. Broadband should be treated like a basic utility—like water or electricity, it needs ongoing attention and support.” Alex Kelley, Rural Innovation Strategies, Inc.

Alignment : Misalignment among people, agencies, and organizations can create barriers to broadband deployment and use at all levels. For example, it makes sense for states and Native nations to align digital equity plans, but the recent timing of funding availability under the Digital Equity Act meant that states’ plans were finalized before Native nations were able to access funding for planning, leading to missed opportunities for alignment and cooperation.

“The segmenting can be frustrating (like providing hotspots just for healthcare). People have whole lives, and we need to be responsive to that.” Abi Waldrupe, National Digital Inclusion Alliance (NDIA)

Sustainability: The current market-based approach to broadband has not worked for the most remote rural communities and Native nations because they simply do not have enough density of customers to allow private ISPs to make a profit. Acknowledging that broadband is an essential utility, as described above, should allow governments and communities to shift their thinking to find ways to provide affordable, sustainable connectivity to people and businesses.

“You can’t just beg one provider to serve a rural community—that hasn’t worked. We have to create an environment of “coopetition” (cooperative competition) with multiple providers and types of service.” Connie Stewart, Cal Poly Humboldt

Learning: The many new broadband and digital inclusion projects currently underway provide fertile ground for learning about what works to bring effective connectivity to rural communities and Native nations—and leverage that connectivity to drive equitable rural prosperity. But without intentional efforts to learn from this experience —and the efforts centered on COVID-19 pandemic response— governments and practitioners may end up repeating mistakes or continuing efforts that need to shift .

“Tribal Colleges and Universities, workforce development programs, libraries—these are good places to start digital inclusion programs that cater to the community with a holistic approach. We need communities of practice in those places to test out how digital equity and digital inclusion will play out and to inform a model of practice and lessons learned.” Davida Delmar, AMERIND Critical Infrastructure

What comes next?

While historic investments in broadband infrastructure funded by the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act will expand access to connectivity in rural regions and Native nations, it is clear that these investments will not be enough to fully connect the most remote and low-income communities. And while digital navigation and device access programs piloted during the COVID-19 pandemic have increased digital inclusion in rural regions and Native nations, these programs are not fully funded, and some (such as the Affordable Connectivity Program (ACP)) have already ended. Achieving geographic digital equity will require policymakers, leaders, and community members at all levels to come together to learn from past efforts and align around sustainable solutions.

Aspen CSG’s consultant Rebecca Huenink led the writing process for our  What’s Working in Rural  series. We are grateful for her contributions.

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Title: revisiting the graph reasoning ability of large language models: case studies in translation, connectivity and shortest path.

Abstract: Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved great success in various reasoning tasks. In this work, we focus on the graph reasoning ability of LLMs. Although theoretical studies proved that LLMs are capable of handling graph reasoning tasks, empirical evaluations reveal numerous failures. To deepen our understanding on this discrepancy, we revisit the ability of LLMs on three fundamental graph tasks: graph description translation, graph connectivity, and the shortest-path problem. Our findings suggest that LLMs can fail to understand graph structures through text descriptions and exhibit varying performance for all these three fundamental tasks. Meanwhile, we perform a real-world investigation on knowledge graphs and make consistent observations with our findings. The codes and datasets are available.

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