a research team records the rainfall in inches

Measuring rainfall – it’s easy and difficult at the same time

Dr. Peggy LeMone is an NCAR Senior Scientist who studies weather and cloud formation.  UCAR

By Dr. Peggy LeMone

In early September of 2013, the Boulder, Colorado, area had huge amounts of rain. Which brings us to the questions -  How do you measure rain?  And how accurate are the measurements?  Even though I have done weather research for many years, during this storm I was reminded how hard it is to measure rain accurately.

This is the story of my attempts to measure rain during the storm. It’s also about the many possible sources of error when making rain measurements – from old rain gauges to growing trees and even, possibly, inquisitive raccoons.

By Monday morning (September 16), I had measured over 16 inches in our backyard rain gauge from the storm which began September 10.  The gauge is the same type the National Weather Service uses. It has a funnel that deposits rain into an inner tube with a smaller diameter (like this one ), but bigger. The inner tube’s diameter is just small enough to make the depth of rain ten times what it would be in a gauge without the tube and funnel.  Thus, each inch in the tube is equivalent to 0.1 inches (a tenth of an inch) of rainfall.  This makes it easier to read accurately!

My gauge is old. I inherited it from a weather-observing neighbor who moved away.  The funnel and inner tube doesn’t quite fit, so, I leave the gauge open and then pour the rain into the inner tube using the funnel.

The rain gauge Peggy LeMone

On the morning of September 12th, the gauge was so full and heavy, with over seven inches of rain, that I decided to stick a yardstick in the gauge to measure the rain amount, and save pouring into the inner tube for the end of the storm.  The gauge tilts slightly, so I took a measurement on the uptilt side and the downtilt side and took an average.   That evening I found that the bottom of the gauge sagged in the middle, leading to an even deeper measurement than the downtilt side.   With these flaws, the lack of the ten-to-one exaggeration of depth, and some measurements being taken in the dark with a flashlight, my data were only approximate. I recorded measurements to within the nearest quarter inch (see the graph below).

Were my measurements accurate? On Friday morning, September 13, I took measurement using a more accurate method to compare with my estimates.  After bailing out five full tubes of rain, I poured the remaining water through the funnel into the tube to a depth of 13.5 inches, spilling a little bit during this process.  The result was 0.38 inches more than my rough estimate from the night before - a storm total of 14.52 inches up to this time. On the graph, this is marked as 1. (The lower shows the uncorrected values.)

But the rain hadn’t stopped.  I awoke on the morning of September 15 th and heard reports that up to 2 inches of rain fell overnight. I went outside to check our gauge – only to see that it had been knocked over (probably by raccoons).  Fortunately, I have a second rain gauge in my backyard – a plastic gauge that registered about 0.25 inches. I added a conservative 0.2 inches, since this gauge was under trees (marked as 2 on the graph).

The final number:  16.37 inches on rain, more or less.

Why do I add “more or less”?   Because there is uncertainty in the measurements. The metal gauge had been in the same place for several years, but I have moved it in the past year away from a growing tree.  I noticed on September 13 that the tree had intruded again: the end of one branch was about 10-15 feet over the gauge, or slightly to the east. Runoff from this branch could have added to the total before I moved the gauge four feet to the west for the last two measurements.  It is also possible that the 0.98 inches could be high, but I doubt it: I had briefly run a sprinkler hose at a low setting, but I had moved the gauge out of the way and I turned the water off immediately once the rain started.  Switching the rain gauges adds uncertainty and so does the previously-mentioned spillage when I poured the remaining water in the gauge into the tube. Also, because my rain gauge was open at the top, some of the water could have evaporated, although evaporation was probably minimal, given the high relative humidity.

Looking up from where the rain gauge was before Time 2. The tree is to the north and east. Peggy LeMone

The exposure of the rain gauge is undoubtedly the greatest source of error.  According to the National Weather Service and CoCoRAHS (both of which use citizen volunteers to measure rainfall), “exposure” of the rain gauge is important. Rain may be blocked by nearby obstacles causing the number to be lower than it should. Or, rain may be blown into or away from the gauge by wind gusts.  The recommendation is that the gauge be about twice the distance from the height of the nearest obstacles, but still sheltered from the wind.

The gauge was certainly sheltered from the wind.  It is located about 10 feet south of the house, which is about 15 feet high, and to the west of a fence and small trees as well as the tree in the photograph.   There is a much smaller tree to the southwest.

All the obstacles suggest that some rain could have been blocked from reaching the gauge, which would imply that the rainfall total is too small.  On the other hand, some rain might have been running down the branch in the picture. (In fact, because of the large amount, I thought this might be the main effect before doing some research on exposure)

It is also recommended that the gauge be level, which it wasn’t.  I’m not too worried about this, since it was nearly vertical.

The conclusion?  There was a lot of rain.  It could have been an inch more than my measurement or an inch less. Acknowledging this is called reporting error. It doesn’t mean that the measurements are wrong, it just gives an idea of how accurate they are. My total was not the largest; there were at least two other measurements near 18 inches.

Now that I’ve described all that can go wrong measuring rainfall, let me add that, putting a rain gauge in the right place, and taking an accurate rainfall measurement is fairly easy. If you have a perfect cylinder, simply stick a ruler in and read the depth (make sure to correct for any offset of the “zero” line and correct for this offset; and see if the ruler pushes the water level up very much). 

If you have a bucket (or glass) with sides that aren’t straight up and down, you’ll need to do a bit of math to figure it out. Here’s what you’ll need to do:

• Measure the diameter of the bucket at the level of the rain.  Subtract out twice the thickness of the walls.
• Measure the diameter of the bucket at the bottom in the same way.
• Calculate the average of the two diameters.
• Divide by two to find the average radius.
• Find the average volume of rain = Depth x radius x radius x 3.14.
• Measure the diameter
• Divide the diameter by 2 to get the radius
• Area = radius x radius x 3.14
• Divide the rainfall volume by this area to get the rainfall.

It would be an interesting exercise to put several buckets (or rain gauges) in different places in a field, your back yard, or your schoolyard to see how much the measurements vary. Soup cans, though not perfect, would work pretty well.  I might try this during the next rainstorm.  (I hope not too soon!)

April 8, 2015

How Is Rainfall Measured?

How is rainfall measured? What does it mean when it rains an inch? And how many gallons of water fall on your roof in a storm? Keep on reading to learn all about the math behind April showers and May flowers

By Math Dude Jason Marshall

You know the old saying about April showers bringing May flowers? Well, it looks like that ain't happening in my neck of the California woods this year. In fact, we're entrenched in a rather undrenched rut—it's hardly rained at all this season, and thus far April has been a complete shut-out.

But there's always hope that things may yet turn around and bring us those proverbial April showers and May flowers. And although I may be living through a dryer than usual April, I'm sure that many of you have been enjoying inches and inches of rain. 

Which might make you wonder: What does it mean when it rains an inch? How is rainfall measured? How can you measure it yourself? And how much rain falls on your roof in a big storm? Those are exactly the questions we'll be talking about today.

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July 28, 2024

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New research shows how global warming is messing with our rainfall

by Steven Sherwood and Anna Ukkola, The Conversation

The past century of human-induced warming has increased rainfall variability over 75% of the Earth's land area—particularly over Australia, Europe and eastern North America, new research shows.

The findings, by Chinese researchers and the UK Met Office, were published in the journal Science . They provide the first systematic observational evidence that climate change is making global rainfall patterns more volatile.

Climate models had predicted this variability would worsen under climate change. But these new findings show rainfall variability has already worsened over the past 100 years—especially in Australia.

Past studies of the observational record either focused on long-term average rain, which is not systematically changing globally, or rainfall extremes where changes are hard to measure accurately. This study looks solely at variability, which refers to uneven timing and amount of rainfall.

The results are consistent with previous research, including ours. This means dry periods are drier than in the past, and rainy periods are wetter.

Alarmingly, the problem will worsen as global warming continues. This raises the risk of droughts and floods—a pertinent issue for Australia.

What the study found

The research shows a systematic increase in rainfall variability since the 1900s. Day-to-day rainfall variability increased by 1.2% per decade, globally. The trend was more pronounced in the latter half of the century, after 1950.

The increase in variability means rain is more unevenly distributed over time. It might mean a year's worth of rain at a given location now falls in fewer days. It can also mean long, dry periods are interspersed by torrential downpours, or drought and flooding in quick succession.

The researchers examined observational data and found since the 1900s, rainfall variability has increased over 75% of the land areas studied. Europe, Australia and eastern North America were particularly affected. These are areas for which detailed and long-running observations are available.

In other regions, the long-term trend in rainfall variability was less prominent. The authors said that may be due to random changes in variability, or errors in the datasets.

The increase in daily rainfall variability occurred in all four seasons worldwide, although seasonal differences emerged at smaller, regional scales.

The authors say the increase is largely the result of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions , which have created a hotter and more humid atmosphere, more intense rain events and greater swings between them.

They say the findings pose new challenges for weather and climate predictions, as well as for resilience and adaptation by societies and ecosystems.

How global warming affects rainfall

To come to grips with these findings, it helps to understand the factors that determine how much heavy rain a storm produces—and how these factors are being affected by global warming.

The first factor is how much water vapor is present in the air. Warm air can contain more moisture. Every degree of global warming creates a 7% increase in the average amount of water vapor over a given patch of the surface.

Scientists have known about this problem for a long time. Earth has warmed 1.5°C since the industrial revolution—equating to a 10% increase in water vapor in the lower atmosphere. So this is driving storms to become rainier.

Second is how strong the storm winds can get, and third is how easily large raindrops form from smaller cloud particles. More research is needed to understand how these factors are affected by climate change, but the current evidence is that together they further amplify increases in rainfall over short time intervals and for very extreme storms, while reducing the increases for weaker storms.

How does this fit in with Australian research?

The findings released overnight confirm research by us and others into rainfall variability in Australia.

Analysis of daily extreme rainfall totals across Australia in present and future simulations revealed future increases were likely to exceed expectations from many past studies. Rainfall is likely to increase more sharply in the most extreme events, and appears to do this nearly everywhere on the continent.

In 2022, we looked at rainfall hour-by-hour in Sydney using radar data. We found the maximum hourly rainfall increased by 40% in Sydney over the past two decades.

Our findings have major implications for Sydney's preparedness for flash flooding. More intense downpours are likely to overwhelm stormwater systems designed for past conditions. But it is not clear how much of this remarkable regional increase in severe rains is due to climate change, or how widespread it is.

Increasing variability also means a greater risk of drought. Climate models suggest rainfall variability in many parts of Australia will keep increasing , unless greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly reduced.

A change in only a handful of heavy rainfall days can make or break a drought in Australia. This means even small changes in variability can bring more devastating droughts in the future as dry periods become drier.

Heeding the warning

Policymakers can often be overly focused on whether their part of the world is becoming wetter or drier overall. But as this new research shows, it's variability they should be worried about.

This volatility might come in the form of worse droughts. Or it might mean much bigger increases in extreme rainfall and flooding.

The variability will challenge governments and communities in many ways, from managing scarce water resources to coping with natural disasters. We should start preparing for these future challenges now.

And as this dire global problem worsens, the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and limit global warming , becomes ever more pressing.

Journal information: Science

Provided by The Conversation

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The Authors

• Allochthonous?!

Measuring precipitation: rain gauges and point precipitation data sources

As watershed hydrologists, we care a lot about precipitation, especially when it reaches the land surface (or the vegetation just above it). Precipitation is the dominant input to our water balances and a major driver of streamflow and water table responses. Because precipitation is so important, we need to spend some time talking about how we measure it. Some hydrologists spend large chunks of their careers working out the best ways to measure and analyze precipitation (and understanding the processes that make it so hard to do!), so this is just an overview.

All about rain gauges

The simplest way to measure precipitation is to put a rain gauge at a point on the landscape. Almost all rain gauges have a funnel down to an opening that then drops water into a collection container. The amount of water in the container is either measured at specified intervals, or it is automatically measured and recorded. Knowing the size of the top of the funnel relative to the size of the collection container lets us related the volume or depth of water in the container to the amount of rainfall.

Standard rain gauges

Here’s what’s called a standard rain gauge:

Standard rain gauge, as pictured by the National Weather Service.

This is what the Cooperative Observers for the National Weather Service (NWS) use to measure rainfall. Here’s how the National Weather Service describes the gauge : “The most common is the non-recording gauge called a Standard Rain Gauge, SRG. Typically the SRG is a metal cylinder with a funnel on top and a plastic measuring tube in the middle. The measuring tube can handle up to 2.00 inches of rain before overflowing into the larger outer cylinder. During the winter, the observer removes the funnel and inner tube and allows the snow to collect in the outer tube. The observer then melts the snow and measures it, getting an accurate water equivalent to report.” Dr. Jefferson has a standard rain gauge sitting in her office. Ask her to show it to you some time.

From that picture, you can’t see what the inside of the rain gauge looks like, but there’s a smaller version of it that a lot of people (include Dr. Jefferson) use. It’s the official rain gauge of the CoCoRAHS network (more on them in a minute).

4″ rain gauge made by Stratus and required by CoCoRAHS. When more than 1″ of rainfall is collected, it overflows from the inner cylinder to the outer cylinder. Then if you need to measure it, you can carefully pour increments of water into the inner cylinder and add it up. In the winter, you take off the funnel and inner cylinder and can collect snow.

The limitation of these rain gauges is that someone has to go outside and manually measure the water level in the gauge, so it is difficult to get frequent (sub-daily) measurements of rainfall. Enter the recording rain gauges.

Recording rain gauges

The National Weather Service (NWS) uses a recording rain gauge that weighs the collected precipitation every 15 minutes, converts that weight into a depth (again using the geometry of the funnel), and records the depth on a punch tape. Once a month, someone can visit the gauge, dump it out and put in a new punch tape. It’s old school, but it works accurately and with minimal maintenance.

Fancier still is the tipping bucket rain gauge. You should watch the video below to see how a tipping bucket rain gauge works. (The one in the video is heated to melt snow and ice, but not all tipping bucket rain gauges are.)

Tipping bucket rain gauges are appreciated for their ability to give high frequency data, because the data logger actually records every time the bucket tips (every 1 mm or 0.01 inch of rain). You can turn that record of tips into things like 5 minute rainfall intensity, which is fantastic. However, tipping bucket rain gauges can under-measure precipitation if it’s raining hard and water drains into the bucket in the middle of a tip. Also, clogging of the orifice (by things like bird poop) can keep a tipping bucket rain gauge from recording any precipitation. Still, this style of rain gauge is widely used.

There are some other technologies for measuring rainfall that are less widely used but still very interesting. These include optical sensors and impact sensors that measure the size and number of drops hitting a surface. The bigger the drop, the more water it contains, so size times number allows calculation of a rainfall depth. There also small Doppler radar sensors that measure drop speed, but we’ll talk more about radar technology later on. These impact, optical, and radar sensors differ from traditional rain gauges because they don’t have a funnel and they don’t in any way collect the precipitation that hits them. You can read a little bit about impact, optical, and radar sensors on this page . Like tipping bucket rain gauges, all of these sensors would be connected to some sort of data logger to record the data for you, enabling high frequency measurements.

Siting your rain gauge

As you can imagine, your choice of rain gauge technology depends on how frequently and accurately you want the measurements and how much you are willing to pay. But regardless of technology, there are some general rules you should follow in figuring out where to put your rain gauge.

• The funnel of your rain gauge should be approximately 1 m above the ground and horizontal.
• Your rain gauge should be sited away from taller objects. (Scroll back up and look at the clear plastic rain gauge. Notice how it is at the top of the post, and the post is beveled away from it.)
• While you want to be away from tall objects, but not in a wide open area (like a rooftop or the middle of a field), because then wind will have a bigger influence on the rainfall. The National Weather Service (NWS) says : “The best site for a gauge is one in which it is protected in all directions, such as in an opening in a grove of trees. The height of the protection should not exceed twice its distance from the gauge.” Figure 3.5 in your textbook (Brooks et al., 2013) shows what a well sited gauge looks like.

Proper siting of a rain gauge with respect to the nearest object (Brooks et al., 2013).

Even though we use rain gauges to measure rain, they don’t capture every last drop (even when they are well sited). The term “undercatch” refers to what is measured in the gauge relative to the true rainfall. Undercatch can happen because of wind blowing rain drops around and distributing the rainfall unevenly over a small area. If you are siting a rain gauge in a windy area, you can add a wind shield (not like on your car, click the previous link) to try to decrease these effects. Undercatch can also happen because some of the rain that hits the rain gauge doesn’t slide all the way down the funnel and into the collection tube or tipping bucket. Instead, surface tension holds the rain on the funnel or opening. This is called “orifice wetting loss” and is a bigger problem (in relative terms) for trying to measure small rain events. Rain gauge makers try to design materials that minimize orifice wetting lost, but some is inevitable. Finally, tipping bucket rain gauges underestimate high rain rate events, as previously described. The amount of undercatch your rain gauge experiences is determined by both the type of gauge and the particular location where it is sited. A combination of laboratory measurements and inter-comparisons of gauges in the field are necessary to really figure out what the undercatch is, but there are also scientific publications that can help you make estimates. If you ever have the job of getting super-accurate rainfall measurements, you’ll want to spend some time with the undercatch literature.

Beyond undercatch, precipitation data can have problems and be poor quality for a variety of reasons. For standard rain gauges, there can be observer error and the depths can be read wrong. Or a measurement can be completely forgotten. For both standard and recording gauges, the orifices can get clogged with leaves, bird poop, and other stuff preventing water from reaching the collection container or tipping bucket. If you don’t have a heated gauge, snow and ice can accumulate in the funnel and prevent later rainfall from reaching the orifice. Or, the gauge can record snowmelt as if it were rain. (You think measuring rain is hard, wait until we get to snow.) If you are using an automated recording rain gauge, electronics problems, battery problems, full memory, etc. are all things that can cause data to be lost or poor quality.

How many point rainfall measurements do you need to know how much it rained in your watershed?

Great question. We’ll talk about how to turn point rainfall measurements into areal estimates in class, but here’s some general guidance for thinking about how many rain gauges you might want in a watershed.

• It depends on size of watershed.
• It depends on the variability of precipitation you expect over the area. Are you in the mountains with big elevation differences or in an area with scattered thunderstorms? Then you’ll want more rain gauges than a flat area with mostly low intensity rainfall.
• Statistical methods can help you figure out how many gauges you might need, but you’ll have to spend time with the scientific literature to find an appropriate method.
• Random sampling might not be practical, because of site access, topography, forest cover, etc.
• Usually, we don’t have enough gauges.

Where can I get point precipitation data (in the US)?

The National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) is a one stop shop for a lot of weather and climate datasets for the US. These data can be accessed through: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web / . When your computer is  on a university IP address, you can download as much data as you want for free. Among the data you will find on NCDC are:

• ASOS = Automated Surface Observing System = “nation’s primary surface weather observing network” – hourly, high quality data, supported by NWS, FAA, and DoD– many stations are at airports (900 stations)
• NWS Cooperative Network = daily observations by trained volunteers w/ support from NWS (~8700 stations)
• US Climate Reference Network = 132 stations focused on long-term trends

Data available on the NCDC website has had some quality control done to eliminate errors like someone misreading or mis-entering a number or an electronics glitch that causes unrealistic readings. So these datasets are a great choice if they are available and meet your needs.

But, if the NCDC datasets won’t work for your purpose you have other options. There are research rain  gauges maintained by university researchers (including students like you), the USGS maintains rain gauges (though they don’t do quality control of the data ), and other state or local agencies may have rain gauges in your area. For example, the Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District maintains a network of rain gauges in the Cleveland area to help it understand and predict flooding and combined sewer overflows. The availability and quality of these datasets will vary depending on where you are, how happy they are to share, and what they are doing to maintain high quality data.

There are lots of amateur weather enthusiasts who maintain personal weather stations and upload their data in real time to sites like  www.wunderground.com . Often you can get high frequency data right in your neighborhood. (There’s one just down the street from me.) But! If you are going to use these data for research or water management, be very careful. There is no one in charge of making sure that the data are accurate in anyway. Gauges may be poorly sited or poorly maintained, and I’ve seen examples of big variations in rainfall measurements (or even missed storms) in small areas.

“CoCoRaHS is a unique, non-profit, community-based network of volunteers of all ages and backgrounds working together to measure and map precipitation (rain, hail and snow).   By using low-cost measurement tools, stressing training and education, and utilizing an interactive Web-site, our aim is to provide the highest quality data for natural resource, education and research applications. ”

Next up: Radar rainfall measurements and satellite precipitation measurements. 

(Please note: The information above is designed for students in Kent State’s Watershed Hydrology class who are learning the basics of precipitation measurement. If you are an expert at anything in this post and discover an error, you can let me know with constructive pointers to better information.)

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[…] Announcing STORMS | Highly Allochthonous on Recent News […]

• Rainfall Records Of The World

Several regions in the world have the distinction of experiencing extremities of weather such as high temperatures and heavy rainfall. With regards to rainfall, there are few regions in the world which are recognized as the world’s wettest regions. The Guinness Book of World Records has a list of such regions which hold world records based on the amount of rainfall received in a specific period.

Mawsynram, India: Highest Average Annual Rainfall

Mawsynram is a small village situated in the north-eastern region in India in Meghalaya state. Mawsynram has been recognized as the wettest place on the planet on numerous occasions. The village holds the world record for the highest average annual rainfall as it receives an average annual rainfall of about 467.4 inches. Mawsynram experiences a subtropical highland climate, which is characterized by many months of high rainfall and a brief dry season (between December and February where monthly rainfall is less than 1.2 inches). In 1985, Mawsynram received about 1,000 inches of rainfall, the highest annual rainfall ever recorded in the village.

Cherrapunji, India: Highest Rainfall In A Year And A Calendar Month

Cherrapunji is another village found in the Indian state of Meghalaya. Recently, the name of the village was changed to its traditional name, Sohra. Like the neighboring Mawsynram, Sohra is one of the wettest places in the world. Sohra holds the world record for the highest rainfall received in one year after the village received 1,041.8 inches of rainfall in the 12 months between August 1st, 1860 and July 31st, 1861. The village also holds the world record for the highest rainfall received in a calendar month after it received 370 inches of rainfall in July 1861. Like Mawsynram, Sohra lies in a region with a subtropical highland climate which is characterized by long wet season and a brief dry spell. In Cherrapunji, the months of June, July and August are usually the wettest of the year while November, December, and January are the driest months. The reason behind the high rainfall received in Sohra is due to the region’s geography whereby, the tall Khasi Hills cause the vapor-laden Indian summer monsoon clouds to condense rapidly and fall as orographic rain in the village.

Foc-Foc, La Reunion Island: Highest Rainfall In 12 And 24 Hrs

According to the Guinness Book of World Records, Foc-Foc in La Reunion Island holds the distinction of receiving the highest amount of rainfall over a 24-hour period as well as over a 12-hour period. Records show that the site of Foc-Foc received 71.8 inches of rain in a 24-hour period between January 7th and 8th, 1966, the highest ever recorded in the world. Foc-Foc also received 45 inches of rainfall in 12 hours during the same day. The high amount of rainfall received in Foc-Foc was as a result of Tropical Storm Denise which struck La Reunion Island in January 1966.

Unionville, United States: Highest Rainfall In A Minute

Unionville, a small town in Frederick County of the state of Maryland holds the world record for the highest amount of rainfall received over one minute. Unionville attained the distinction on July 4th, 1956 after a large storm which lasted 50 minutes dropped 2.84 inches of rain, with GP Von Eiff, a weather observer reporting the town receiving 1.23 inches in one minute. The record was further analyzed by the US Weather Bureau, which later confirmed the record.

Effects Of High Rainfall

While high rainfall is an important source of fresh water to local communities, extremely high amount of rain can have detrimental effects. The village of Sohra is among the wettest places in the world. However, the high rainfall received in the village has led to the erosion of topsoil which is necessary for cultivation and has thus triggered a food shortage in the village.

• Environment

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Live updates: Sarasota Police have rescued 500 people from flooded areas

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Hurricane Debby, the fourth named storm of the Atlantic hurricane season, dumped more than a foot of rain on Sarasota and Manatee counties as it passed, eventually making landfall in Florida's Big Bend on Monday morning.

Sarasota and Manatee counties are still feeling the effects Monday morning and forecasters said the rain and flooding will continue. Manatee County rescued dozens from homes threatened by floodwaters , while these photos show some of Debby's aftermath in Sarasota and Manatee counties.

See below for the latest updates on flooding, cancellations and closures, and what you need to know about the aftermath of Hurricane Debby in Sarasota and Manatee as we continue updates throughout the day.

6:30 p.m.: National Weather Service data: Sarasota, Manatee counties had the most rainfall across 14-county region

Sarasota and Manatee counties had the highest three-day rain totals from Hurricane Debby among the 14 counties covered by the National Weather Service in Ruskin.

Lakewood Ranch in Manatee County had 16.56 inches. The highest total in Sarasota County was 16.23 inches.

In comparison, Lake Suzy in southern DeSoto County had 3.34 inches and Fort Myers in Lee County had 8.42.

The weather service said though Debby is moving north away from Florida, rain bands will continue to move through the area through Tuesday with some gusty winds possible.

Thousands remain without power in Sarasota, Manatee

About 7,630 Florida Power & Light customers remained without power in Sarasota County Monday evening, according to figures last updated at 5 p.m. by the power company. That is a reduction from about 8,640 FPL customers who did not have power in Sarasota at about 10:45 a.m. on Monday morning.

Another 1,800 FPL customers were without power in Manatee County. That is down from about 4,200 FPL customers at about 10:25 a.m. on Monday morning.

5:45 p.m.: Manatee County reports 35 water rescues, hundreds of emergency calls

Manatee County reported 35 water rescues Monday resulting in 186 individuals being safely brought to higher ground. These rescues have been a collaborative effort between emergency responders, including firefighters, police officers and specialized water-rescue teams. A shelter was opened at Virgil Mills Elementary (7200 69th St. E, Palmetto) to add to the two previously opened prior to the storm’s arrival.

The county's 311 Call Center has been taking calls from concerned residents, receiving over 1,400 calls in the last 24 hours. Since Midnight today, an additional 782 emergency calls and 900 non-emergency calls have come into the Emergency Call Center, reflecting the ongoing urgency and need for assistance.

"We are facing an unprecedented weather event with Hurricane Debby," said Jodie Fiske, Manatee County Public Safety Director. "The safety of our residents is our top priority, and we are doing everything in our power to respond effectively to this crisis. I commend the heroic efforts of our emergency responders and the resilience of our community during this challenging time."

After several locations throughout Manatee County surpassed the 25- to 100-year flood levels and record-breaking rainfall was reported, three plugs at the auxiliary spillway designed to automatically keep Lake Manatee at a manageable level successfully performed their duties. As each plug was engaged, a corresponding IPAWS geo-targeted message alerted citizens of potential property impacts. Out of an abundance of caution, citizens were requested to seek higher ground as high-water vehicles and transport were staged at key locations.

As the impacts of winds dissipate and if it’s safe to do so, residents are encouraged to report damage to the county. the The reporting tool, which can be accessed by going to mymanatee.org/ReportDamage, allows residents to enter information into an online form regarding damage they see within the county.

5 p.m.: Sarasota County offices to remain closed Tuesday, rescues continuing

Sarasota County announced the county offices will remain closed through Tuesday, Aug. 6, to allow for staff to focus on recovery efforts and emergency operations.

More from Sarasota County: An evacuation center for those impacted by Tropical Storm Debby opened at 5 p.m., Monday, Aug. 5, at Sarasota Technical College, 4748 S. Beneva Road, Sarasota. The county stressed that the shelter is for those who have their homes because of flooding or have been impacted firsthand by the flooding events.

Those requiring transportation assistance to the evacuation center may call 311 to arrange pickup. Do not walk or drive through flooded waters. To see a list of supplies to bring to an evacuation center, visit  scgov.net/beprepared .

Members of the Sarasota County Fire Department continue to conduct flood response operations in the most heavily impacted areas of Sarasota County with a focus near Phillippi Creek. Members of SCFD are being assisted by the Florida National Guard and Florida Urban Search and Rescue Task Force Six are going house to house to ensure that residents are safe and have access to resources as needed. Sarasota County Fire Department has responded to 495 total calls for service since 8 p.m. Sunday.

In an effort to assess the damage to homes and businesses as a result of Tropical Storm Debby, residents are encouraged to complete this voluntary survey. To fill out the survey, please visit:  https://loom.ly/MpVOZsc . If you need assistance filling out the form, please contact 311.

Curbside collections will resume on Tuesday, Aug. 6, for streets that are accessible to collection vehicles. There will be a one-day shift to the regular collection schedule customers

Sarasota County Public Utilities staff are currently working on emergency calls only. Due to high flows at the Central County Wastewater Treatment Facility caused by Tropical Storm Debby, the filters at the plant exceeded capacity for a short period of time. During this time, 500 gallons of partially treated wastewater spilled on site. Cleanup and notifications are proceeding per protocol. No surface waters were impacted, and no sampling is necessary. Crews are actively working on spills throughout the county in Siesta Key, Gulf Gate, Linwood, Longwood and Nokomis.

4 p.m.: Sarasota Police Department says more than 500 people have been rescued from flooded areas

The Sarasota Police Department has been coordinating the rescue of people trapped by floodwaters, largely from the record-high levels of Philippi Creek, with the help of multiple local law enforcement agencies.

"Approximately 500 residents were safely transported from flooded homes to higher ground," reads a recent SPD social media post.

The rescues are ongoing, especially as more rain is expected to come into the area.

Water rescues will continue throughout the day and into the evening as we search for more stranded individuals. These images were taken near the intersection of S Conrad Ave/Bahia Vista St. Approximately 500 residents were safely transported from flooded homes to higher ground. pic.twitter.com/buvZYI8DMb — Sarasota Police Department (@SarasotaPD) August 5, 2024

3:30 p.m.: Sarasota County will open an emergency evacuation center for those impacted by Tropical Storm Debby

Sarasota County announced at 3:20 p.m. that it would open an emergency evacuation center for those impacted by Tropical Storm Debby. It will open at 5 p.m. at Sarasota Technical College, 4748 S Beneva Road, Sarasota.

"Those requiring transportation assistance to the evacuation center may call 311 to arrange pickup. Do not walk or drive through flooded waters," reads the release.

2:15 p.m.: Can an armadillo swim? This one was caught on video paddling across a flooded Sarasota street after Tropical Storm Debby

This video by Lakewood Ranch resident John Annis shows that armadillos can swim if they want to get across a street in Lakewood Ranch flooded by Tropical Storm Debby.

1:30 p.m.: Sunshine Skyway Bridge remains closed

The Sunshine Skyway Bridge closed Sunday due to high winds from Tropical Storm Debby and it remains closed today. No word on when it might reopen.

#Skyway #SkywayBridge remains CLOSED as #TropicalStormDebby continues north. pic.twitter.com/fJzYNy0g0v — FHP Tampa (@FHPTampa) August 5, 2024

1 p.m.: Manatee County announces "strategic release" of water from Lake Manatee

Manatee County announced that officials have determined "that a strategic release of water from Lake Manatee is necessary. This decision, made in full cooperation with supporting agencies, aims to manage water levels and ensure public safety."

High water vehicles and transport units have been strategically positioned at key locations downstream of the Manatee Dam. Road closures are in effect and will remain so until conditions are safe for travel. Residents are urged to relocate for their safety, the announcement said.

Public Safety Director Jodie Fiske emphasized the importance of community cooperation during this time, stating, "The strategic release of water from Lake Manatee is a precautionary measure to mitigate the impact of the recent heavy rainfall and to ensure the Manatee Dam remains in good structural condition. Our priority is the safety and well-being of our residents. We urge everyone to follow these alerts to stay safe."

"Residents who receive a targeted IPAWS alert are encouraged to leave for a nearby shelter. In the event of a life-threatening situation, individuals should dial 911 immediately. For information on transport sites, residents can call 311.

"Additional strategic releases may be necessary to maintain safe water levels in Lake Manatee as storm surge and rising tides continue to pose challenges."

For further updates and information, monitor mymanatee.org/storm.

Out of an abundance of caution, a targeted IPAWS alert was sent to citizens down river of the dam. Recipients of that alert are encouraged to leave for a nearby shelter. In the event of a life-threatening situation, dial 911 immediately. For transport sites info, call 311. https://t.co/6QLHFMApC1 — Manatee County Government (@ManateeGov) August 5, 2024

Sarasota Schools says offices and schools closed today, expects normal operations Tuesday

Sarasota Schools said on social media it expects to resume normal operations on Tuesday after being closed Monday because of Hurricane Debby impacts.

Noon: Sarasota Police Department evacuating people from homes near Philippi Creek due to heavy flooding

According to various reports, the Sarasota Police Department is using rescue vehicles to evacuate people from homes in Pinecraft along Philippi Creek due to intense flooding from Tropical Storm Debby.

The city of Sarasota said on social media the rescues are underway in the area near Bahia Vista and Tuttle roads. Sarasota police are coordinating with Sarasota County Emergency Management with high water rescue vehicles to relocate displaced residents. The city and police did not say where they were taking evacuees.

Sarasota County Fire Chief David Rathbun said in Monday morning statement that the area received twice as much rain as expected. The Philippi Creek area is experiencing heavy flooding.

Rathbun said county officials are concerned about a midday high tide and four feet of anticipated storm surge.

"The tributaries are full, and the water is not able to run off," Rathbun said.

This story is developing.

Our Emergency Response Team (ERT) is actively deployed with high-water rescue vehicles in the Pinecraft area along Philippi Creek. We are collaborating with nearby agencies to ensure the safe transportation of residents from flooded homes to higher ground. pic.twitter.com/xzdpueFtGI — Sarasota Police Department (@SarasotaPD) August 5, 2024

North Port candidate forum postponed

A North Port City Commission candidate forum hosted by Team North Port CAN that had been scheduled for Monday night at the Shannon Staub Public Library was postponed.

Pan Tokarz, one of the founders of North Port CAN, said the rescheduled forum will only include candidates for the North Port District 2 race, which includes incumbent Barbara Langdon and challengers Cheryl Cook and Josh Smith Jr. and will be on the Aug. 20 ballot and not the District 1 and 3 races, which are not on the primary ballot.

11:10 a.m.: Sarasota County Sheriff's Office reports Fruitville Road impassable east of I-75 due to Hurricane Debby flooding

***ALERT*** Fruitville Road, east of I-75 is NOT passible. This is at the S-curve. The closest cross street would be Annie Laurie. Please avoid this area. #MySCSO #HurricaneDebby — SarasotaSheriff (@SarasotaSheriff) August 5, 2024

10:30 a.m.: Sarasota County and City of Sarasota updates on closures and Hurricane Debby aftermath

Both Sarasota City and County declared states of emergency as they assessed the fallout from Hurricane Debby.

All administrative offices and recreational facilities are closed on Monday. Garbage, recycling, and yard waste pick up is delayed one day.

The City Commission meeting previously scheduled for Monday morning will now be on Thursday at 9 a.m.

Sarasota County also closed its normal operations on Monday due to additional rain and flooding. Those who live in unincorporated parts of the county should expect delays to garbage, recycling and yard waste collection throughout the remainder of the week, the county announced Monday morning. Sarasota Libraries are also closed on Monday.

The Sheriff's Office is responding to vehicles stuck in flooded roads throughout the county.

All Sarasota County residents have been advised to stay off the roads if possible. The city is monitoring flooding of Benjamin Franklin Drive at Lido Key and at Ken Thompson Park.

A county alert urged residents not to open manhole covers, to avoid the beaches and waters, and not to drive in flooded conditions.

TURN AROUND, DON'T DROWN - We've received several reports of flooded roadways. Do not drive through standing water. Stay safe. #SRQCounty #HurricaneDebby pic.twitter.com/o1cYiiA9Fe — Sarasota County Government (@SRQCountyGov) August 5, 2024

10:20 a.m.: City of Venice updates on road closures and Hurricane Debby aftermath

The City of Venice issued a local State of Emergency Monday morning and released a notice detailing changes to services, closures and flooded roads:

City Hall and other City facilities are open to the public today, with the exception of the Venice Museum, which is closed.

FACILITY & SERVICE CLOSURES:

No trash, recycling or yard waste pickups for City of Venice customers today, Monday, Aug. 5, as the Sarasota County Landfill is closed.

The Venice Fishing Pier remains closed.

Humphris Park at the South Jetty remains closed.

City Utility customers are encouraged to limit your water usage when possible.

The Venice Municipal Airport Meet and Greet scheduled for Tuesday, Aug. 6 at City Hall has been postponed until further notice. Date TBD.

ROADWAYS & FLOODING: The following local roadways are experiencing flooding:Harbor Dr. heading to Caspersen BeachGolden Beach Blvd. from Everglades to Villas Dr.Villas Dr. from Golden Beach Blvd. to Hibiscus, Gardenia, Flamingo drivesPark Blvd.The EsplanadeTarpon Center Dr.Gene Green Rd.Parkdale Dr.Pinebrook Rd.

Additionally, the Harbor Dr. and E. Venice Ave. intersection traffic light is out. Treat the intersection as a 4-way stop and be sure to make eye contact with other motorists before proceeding.

Residents in low-lying areas may experience road flooding until the storm surge recedes. Do not attempt to drive or wade through flooded streets. Flood waters can present unseen hazards to both vehicles and individuals.

9:50 a.m.: Manatee County rescues 44 people from flooding; records more than 14 inches of rain due to Hurricane Debby

Manatee County revealed in a release that Sarasota Bradenton Airport recorded a record amount of rain and areas near Parrish received over 14 inches.

The county has also rescued a total of 32 adults, 12 children and 13 pets rescued from 14 homes in high water rescues from the Center Lake area.

Two shelters are open in Manatee County: Miller Elementary School (601 43rd St W, Bradenton, FL 34209) and Nolan Middle School (6615 Greenbrook Blvd, Bradenton, FL 34202).

Here is the full release:

Widespread flooding has been reported across Manatee County following the passage of Hurricane Debby. Nearly 12” of rain were reported at the SRQ Airport weather station – a record daily rainfall. Manatee County rain gauges have recorded totals ranging from 4” in the eastern portion of the county to over 14” in the southwest part of the county and areas near Parrish.“Assets are in place to perform any necessary rescues, but they will need room to work,” said Manatee County Public Safety Director Jodie Fiske. “We are urging everyone to stay off the roads unless travel is absolutely necessary. We do not need disaster tourists.” Residents and visitors are reminded that direct messaging from both Manatee County and the National Weather Service are important and should be heeded immediately. They should call 3-1-1 for flooding issues. 9-1-1 is the number if you’re stuck.As of this morning there have been a total of 32 adults, 12 children and 13 pets rescued from 14 homes in high water rescues from the Center Lake area (Whitfield/Prospect) and Villa Del Sol MHP on 15th St. E.It is anticipated that there will be more rescues throughout the day today as waters will continue to rise. Because of the flooding, the Manatee County Landfill on Lena Rd. will be closed, and trash collection canceled for Monday. Trash collection days will shift one day later this week (e.g. Monday's collection on Tuesday, Tuesday's collection Wednesday, etc.).Two shelters are now open. Miller Elementary School (601 43rd St W, Bradenton, FL 34209) and Nolan Middle School (6615 Greenbrook Blvd, Bradenton, FL 34202) are available for evacuees. Other locations may be opened as needed.For up-to-date information about evacuation levels, shelters, and sandbag locations, please visit mymanatee.org/storm .For more information on Manatee County Government, visit  mymanatee. org  or call (941) 748-4501. You can also follow us on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram @manateegov.

9:45 a.m.: Fruitville Road in Sarasota down to two lanes due to flooding closed due to flooding

According to the Sarasota Police Department, Fruitville Road has been closed due to increased flooding in the area.

9:45 a.m. update: Fruitville Road is closed again due to increased flooding. Please stay off the roads. https://t.co/EdqwVbKRnN — Sarasota Police Department (@SarasotaPD) August 5, 2024

8:30 a.m.: List of Sarasota County Roads closed due to flooding; county asks people to stay off roads

Sarasota County is asking people to remain home and stay off roads as heavy rains and flooding continue throughout the county.

"Due to the additional rain overnight causing flooding on roads and in neighborhoods throughout Sarasota County, we are encouraging residents and visitors to stay off the roads, today, Mon. Aug 5. Please avoided flooded road, downed power lines and low lying areas that have additional flooding. Visit scgov.net for more information."

Manatee County has listed 25 roads closed due to flooding, which can be seen here .

The Sarasota County Sheriff's Office has posted an incomplete list of roads currently affected by flooding:

• Pinebrook Rd at Edmundson Rd
• River Rd at Center Rd
• McIntosh Rd south of King Richard
• Beneva Rd south of Legacy Trail
• McIntosh Rd at Bahia Vista St
• Clark Rd at Beneva Rd
• Clark Rd at Vamo Rd
• Beneva Rd between Clark and 41
• Fruitville east of I-75 to Oakford
• Myrtle Ave at Tuttle Ave
• Bee Ridge at Honore Ave
• Center Gate Blvd at Wilkinson Rd
• Swift Rd at Wilkinson Rd
• Proctor Rd at Honore Ave
• Bee Ridge Rd at Center Gate Blvd
• Tuttle Ave at Southgate Circle
• Northgate Blvd
• Tuttle Ave at Bahia Vista St
• Proctor Rd at Suncoast Technical School

8:20 a.m.: Sarasota Bradenton International Airport and Tampa International Airport both open, but delays and cancelations abound after Hurricane Debby

According to Rick Piccolo, President and CEO of Sarasota Bradenton International Airport , there was no damage to SRQ besides "a few roof leaks."

"Nine flight cancellations for today, but some flights are operating," said Piccolo. "People should check with their airline for any updates.“

TPA remains open , but "due to Hurricane Debby, delays and cancelations are expected to continue Monday," according to the airport's social media. "Passengers are urged to continue checking with their airlines for the latest flight information, as they determine flight schedules, not the airport."

TPA remains open and operational, however, due to Hurricane Debby, delays and cancelations are expected to continue Monday. Passengers are urged to continue checking with their airlines for the latest flight information, as they determine flight schedules, not the Airport. pic.twitter.com/3Rjwzfqrhq — Tampa International Airport ✈️ (@FlyTPA) August 5, 2024

7 a.m.: See a list of Sarasota and Manatee area government offices and services closed Monday due to Hurricane Debby

After receiving more than a foot of rain in the past 24 hours across the area, some government offices will be closed on Monday, including the City of Sarasota, the Town of Longboat Key, City of North Port, Manatee County and Sarasota County.

City of North Port offices will be CLOSED today due to weather conditions. 🔵 This includes Warm Mineral Springs Park, North Port Aquatic Center, George Mullen Activity Center and the Morgan Family Community Center. pic.twitter.com/hIzzydX8zj — North Port, Florida (@CityofNorthPort) August 5, 2024

‼️ ℹ The landfill will be closed today and there will be no garbage pickup. We will continue to monitor the situation and provide updates for the future. — Manatee County Government (@ManateeGov) August 5, 2024

Sarasota County normal operations are closed Monday, Aug. 5, due to additional rain overnight and this morning that caused additional flooding throughout Sarasota County. pic.twitter.com/ppNR4xjSfq — Sarasota County Government (@SRQCountyGov) August 5, 2024

Town Offices will remain closed today, Monday, August 5th. Due to localized flooding and additional rain expected throughout the morning, we ask everyone to stay off the roadways and remain indoors. #StaySafe #LongboatKey pic.twitter.com/6AKPsCgT5G — Longboat Key (@TownofLBK) August 5, 2024

⚠️ UPDATE: Following the last two heavy rain bands, City of Sarasota operational plans are being adjusted: City admin offices and facilities will be CLOSED today. Garbage will NOT be collected today. It will be DELAYED one day. The City Commission mtg will be RESCHEDULED. pic.twitter.com/9UtTta321O — City of Sarasota (@CityofSarasota) August 5, 2024

6:30 a.m.: Some areas of Sarasota County have received over a foot of rain in 24 hours due to Hurricane Debby

According to the Sarasota County Water Atlas , some parts of Sarasota County have received almost a foot of rain within the past 24 hours. A station in the Arlington Park neighborhood has recorded 11.28 inches of rain and one in Nokomis has registered 11.41 inches.

At 2 a.m. Monday morning, Sarasota Bradenton International Airport had recorded just over 12 inches of rain in the past 24 hours.

According to the National Weather Service, that rain is likely to continue through Monday.

"After Debby makes landfall today, winds and rain will gradually subside into tonight...however, several feeder bands of rain and isolated thunderstorms will persist with locally heavy rain still possible, which will likely continue into Tuesday," according to the latest forecast.

A Tornado Watch is also in effect for Sarasota and Manatee counties until 4 p.m.

#HurricaneDebby continues to move north over the water, but impacts from the storm remain over west central and SW FL through today! 🌀 Please continue to shelter in place! ✅ Have multiple ways to receive warnings 💡 Use caution after the storm #FLwx pic.twitter.com/1NlQckOVLO — NWS Tampa Bay (@NWSTampaBay) August 5, 2024

11 p.m.: Debby intensifies to hurricane; National Weather Service gauge shows Sarasota-Bradenton with some of heaviest rainfall

The National Hurricane Center said Debby has intensified from a tropical storm to a hurricane with sustained winds of 75 mph as it continued toward the north Florida coast.

The weather service's gauges at the Sarasota Bradenton International Airport showed a wind gust late Sunday night of 48 mph and before midnight reported a rainfall total of 9.52 inches over the previous nine hours. The figure must be confirmed by the weather service, but color-coded rainfall distribution maps showed some of the heaviest rains from Debby falling on the Sarasota area and the coastal Manatee County.

8 p.m.: National Weather Service says local flooding could continue into Monday

The National Weather Service's Sunday night update says storm surge, coastal flooding and flooding impacts will linger throughout the day Monday.

A Storm Surge Warning continues from north Florida south to Manatee County with levels of 3 to 5 feet to the middle of Longboat Key. Rising water will begin soon, forecasters said.

A Storm Surge Watch remains for Sarasota, Charlotte and Lee counties, where surge flooding is ongoing, and levels 2 to 4 feet above ground level are expected.

Heavy rainfall continues. Flash flooding is possible, especially in coastal counties where water drainage will be difficult due to storm surge. River rises are happening, or will happen soon.

Tornadoes remain possible through tomorrow morning, and a tornado watch remains in effect. The worst wind/rain/tornado impacts will continue into Monday morning, with gradual improvement is expected after that from south to north through the day.

As of 5 p.m., Debby was about 100 miles due west of Tampa Bay. Rotating bands moving onshore continue to produce occasional tornadoes and flooding rain.

The highest wind gust reported in the area was 45 mph in Venice.

The winds are expected to abate about 6 a.m. Monday in Sarasota County and 8 a.m. in Manatee, but storm surge will linger throughout the day, the weather service said.

The rainfall total by Sunday evening in Sarasota of 6.51 inches is already a record.

Two tornadoes have been confirmed, along with one waterspout, from Debby.

7 p.m.: Manatee County warns of flood risks

Manatee County officials are providing residents in high-risk areas with warnings about the increased possibility of flooding as Tropical Storm Debby continues to affect the area. Flash Flood warnings have been issued by the National Weather Service county-wide. In addition, direct emergency messaging for residents in specific flood-prone areas have been broadcast as rain totals topped six inches in many locations and tidal inundation is also threatened.“This is a situation of steady rain compounded by the tides, said Manatee County Public Safety Director Jodie Fiske. “We are taking the actions now because of what could occur overnight tonight and into early tomorrow.”Residents and visitors are reminded that direct messaging from both Manatee County and the National Weather Service are important and should be heeded immediately. Two shelters are now open. Miller Elementary School (601 43rd St W, Bradenton) and Nolan Middle School (6615 Greenbrook Blvd, Bradenton) are available for evacuees. Other locations may be opened as needed. 

For up-to-date information about evacuation levels, shelters, and sandbag locations, visit  mymanatee.org/storm . 

Sarasota County declares local state of emergency

Sarasota County has declared a local state of emergency, according to a social media post. The action authorizes spending public funds to repair damage caused by Tropical Storm Debby.

The county also said it plans to return to normal operations Monday. Staff will assess facilities for storm impacts and update any interruptions at scgov.net.

Frequent gusts to tropical storm force will be possible within rain bands through Monday, the county noted. High tides early morning on Monday, Aug. 5 are the most critical for potential flooding. A reminder that Sarasota County is urging residents to stay off the roads and remain in a safe location until the storm passes. Coastal areas may experience flooding caused by excessive rainfall.

According to a Sarasota County update:

Residential solid waste collection for residents living in unincorporated Sarasota County will continue as scheduled on Monday, Aug. 5. There may be some commercial collection delays pending accessibility in storm-impacted areas.

Manasota Key Road at the north end of Blind Pass Beach is underwater and closed. A significant amount of the smaller rocks used for shoreline stabilization are on the road.

Public Works has shut down North Casey Key Road as it is unsafe for vehicle travel. There is also some road damage in this area. Residents cannot get on or off North Casey Key at this time. The county will evaluate the road once the storm passes and it is safe to do so.

The docks at Indian Mound Park are underwater. For all #SRQCounty current parks status reports, visit SarasotaCountyParks.com.

Sarasota County has closed the road leading into Casperson Beach due to erosion.

County Public Works crews are reporting that most roadways are under water throughout Siesta Key. Motorists should avoid this area.

North Beach Road on Siesta Key is covered with about a foot of sand. County crews plan to clear the road once the storm passes.

6 p.m.: Rainfall totals about 6.5" for Sarasota-Bradenton; about 2,000 without power in Sarasota, Manatee counties

As of 6 pm Sunday, the area around the Sarasota Bradenton International Airport in north Sarasota County had seen 6.49 inches of rain in the last 24 hours, according to the National Weather Service in Ruskin. Venice had 4.52 inches in the same period, according to the NWS.

Power outages in the Sarasota/Manatee area slightly increased compared to this morning, with 1,487 reported to FPL in Sarasota County as of 6 pm Sunday. In Manatee County, FPL's outage map showed 571 outages.

5 p.m.: Tropical Storm Debby drops more than 6 inches of rain; tornado warning issued

Tropical Storm Debby was 120 miles west of Tampa at 5 p.m. Sunday and still bringing heavy rain as it moves north about 12 mph toward an expected landfall in north Florida about midday Monday. Maximum sustained winds are near 65 mph.

The storm had dumped more than 6 inches of rain at the Sarasota Bradenton International Airport in about nine hours, according to the National Weather Service. The highest wind gust recorded at the airport was 43 mph. The rain is expected to continue as rain bands rotate around the storm's center.

The National Weather Service issued a tornado warning until 5:30 p.m. for southeastern Manatee County, southeastern Sarasota, northwestern Charlotte and western DeSoto. A severe thunderstorm capable of producing a tornado was located near Port Charlotte moving north.

According to the National Hurricane Center, a gradual decrease in Debby's forward speed with a turn toward the northeast and east is expected on Monday and Tuesday. On the forecast track, the center will move across the northeastern Gulf of Mexico through tonight. Debby is then expected to move slowly across northern Florida and southern Georgia Monday and Tuesday.

Rapid strengthening is forecast, and Debby is expected to become a hurricane tonight, with additional strengthening likely. Weakening is expected on Monday and Tuesday after Debby moves inland.

 As of 3 p.m., Sunday, all streets in downtown Punta Gorda both east and west of U.S. 41 were closed until further notice due to flooding.  The Sunseeker resort boardwalk is closed and will reopen around noon Monday.

2:30 p.m.: More reports of flooding and closed roads in Sarasota, Bradenton due to Tropical Storm Debby

Various local governments are reporting road closures due to flooding from Tropical Storm Debby. These include Casey Key Road; Ben Franklin Dr. on Lido Key; Harbor Drive at South Brohard in Venice; and many more. See below for some details. According to the National Weather Serivce, 3.67" of rain has fallen in the last six hours at the Sarasota Bradenton International Airport. The highest wind gust reported there was 35 mph early this afternoon.

Please continue to monitor our Facebook page for road closure updates. https://t.co/lhhT5Vd0JD pic.twitter.com/qb2jq1YS05 — City of Bradenton, Florida - Government (@BradentonGov) August 4, 2024

(1/2) The road closure info below is provided by @BradentonGov Public Works: •Riverview Blvd: 19th-26th St W •51st St W: 9th-18th Ave •9th St W: 9th-17th Ave pic.twitter.com/5BcIJx4UDn — Bradenton Police Department (@BradentonPD) August 4, 2024

🚧 ROAD CLOSURE ALERT: Sarasota County's Public Works Department is closing Harbor Drive at South Brohard due to significant erosion. The erosion has undermined the road just south of the park entrance and before Caspersen Beach. Motorists are advised to avoid the area. — City of Venice, FL (@CityofVeniceFL) August 4, 2024

We are seeing localized street flooding in some areas of North Port from #TSDebby . North Port is prone to street flooding during and after sustained heavy rainfall. It takes time for this water to move through the stormwater drainage system - this is how it was designed to work. pic.twitter.com/GD6OGcHBBG — North Port, Florida (@CityofNorthPort) August 4, 2024

#SRQCounty Public Works has shut down North Casey Key Road as it is unsafe for vehicle travel. There is also some road damage in this area. Residents cannot get on or off North Casey Key at this time. The county will evaluate the road once the storm passes and it is safe to do so pic.twitter.com/KABheapD15 — Sarasota County Government (@SRQCountyGov) August 4, 2024

⚠️From our @SarasotaPD : AVOID Ben Franklin Drive on Lido Key due to street flooding from #TSDebby . Our Public Works crews staged equipment in advance of the storm & traffic is being being redirected. Reminder: Never drive through water-covered roads. Turn around, don't drown. https://t.co/4A5QNE5mhr — City of Sarasota (@CityofSarasota) August 4, 2024

1 p.m.: Sarasota city police, county warn of street flooding

Sarasota Police said on social media that Benjamin Franklin Drive is flooding near the Sandcastle Resort at Lido Beach, and Ken Thompson Park is also seeing flooding. Barricades are installed and police said they're providing traffic control. They advised people to avoid the area.

Sarasota County officials reported that most roadways are underwater on Siesta Key, and that North Beach Road on Siesta has about a foot of sand.

12:30 p.m.: Manatee County warns it's 'not a regular thunderstorm'

Manatee County's emergency operations center held a press conference to warn people against complacency in the face of potential flooding.

Manatee County Public Safety Director Jodie Fiske said the area still expects to see 6 to 12 inches of rain and those in low-lying areas should be aware of floods.

"This is not just a regular afternoon thunderstorm," she said. "It is a marathon, not a sprint."

Fiske added that the county has not shut off utilities to Anna Maria Island, and also urged residents to not try to drive through flooded streets.

U.S. Congressman Vern Buchanan urged the county's residents to remain vigilant, adding that "storms have a mind of their own" sometimes and can turn for the worst.

"Obviously you plan for the worst and hope for the best. That's what this team in Manatee County has done," Buchanan said.

11 a.m.: Tropical Storm Debby strengthens, Storm Surge Warning issued for Longboat Key and Manatee County

As Tropical Storm Debby slowly makes its way northwest in the Gulf of Mexico, the National Hurricane Center has issued a Storm Surge Warning from the middle of Longboat Key north to Tampa Bay.

"A Storm Surge Warning means there is a danger of life-threatening inundation, from rising water moving inland from the coastline, during the next 36 hours in the indicated locations," according to the NHC.

Sarasota County is still expected to see 2-4 feet of storm surge, but that has increased in Manatee County to 2-5 feet.

According to the NHC: "Maximum sustained winds have increased to near 65 mph (100 km/h) with higher gusts. Rapid strengthening is forecast, and Debby is expected to become a hurricane by tonight before it reaches the Florida Big Bend coast."

The National Weather Service has also issue a tornado watch for Sarasota, Manatee and much of the rest of the state until 8 p.m. Sunday.

A tornado warning for was issued for southeastern DeSoto County and the Arcadia area after radar alerted to a possible twister.

Manatee County advised people to be patient. “Residents and visitors need to understand this is going to be a long process,” said Manatee County Public Safety Director Jodie Fiske.

Coastal flooding due to onshore flow is anticipated over next 24 to 36 hours, the county noted. Coastal Level A evacuations and evacuations from low-lying areas are still encouraged in Manatee and shelters at Miller Elementary School (601 43rd St W, Bradenton) and Nolan Middle School (6615 Greenbrook Blvd, Bradenton) are open.

9:30 a.m.: Sarasota County urges people to stay off the roads in update

Sarasota County urged people to staff off the roads until Tropical Storm Debby passes, noted that expected rainfall totals have increased to 6 to 12 inches, with isolated higher amounts of up to 18 inches over the next five days, and a potential for up to 4 feet of storm surge in low-lying areas.

Coastal areas may experience flooding caused by excessive rainfall from now until Monday, Aug. 5. Excessive runoff could result in flooding of rivers, creeks, streams, and other low-lying and flood-prone areas. Creeks and streams may rise out of their banks, and flood may occur in poor drainage and urban areas, the county noted.

The county noted that Public Works staff went to St. Armands Circle on Saturday morning to clean, check and make sure the stormwater system was functioning properly. They also lowered the water levels at the Celery Fields and Phillippi Creek Basin in preparation for rain.

The Knight Trail gun range will be closed Sunday, Aug. 4, for staff and visitor safety. Solid waste collection for Monday, Aug. 5 is expected to continue as scheduled.

The Department of Health Sarasota's Back-to-School Clinic scheduled at the North Port location on Aug. 4 has been canceled. To ensure all students receive their required vaccinations, DOH will extend the North Port Immunization Clinic hours from 8 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. during the week of Aug. 5-9, with walk-in hours from 4-5:30 p.m.

8: 45 a.m. National Weather Service update for Sarasota, Manatee

A spokesperson for the National Weather Service in Ruskin said the latest forecast calls for six to eight inches of rain for the area Sunday and Monday. Winds of 20 to 25 mph are anticipated, with gusts as high as 50 mph accompanying heavy rain and thunderstorms.

Tornadoes are also possible. The weather service issued a warning that expired at 9:15 a.m. that included east central Manatee, as well as parts of DeSoto and Hardee counties.

Tropical Storm Debby's direction has shifted slightly west overall, but now remains headed north toward Florida's Panhandle-Big Bend area.

Along the Sarasota/Manatee coast, there could be a storm surge between three and four feet, according to the weather service. Forecasters recommend people stay indoors, monitor the storm forecast and listen to warnings from local authorities.

Power outages remain sparse as of Sunday morning, with FPL's outage map showing sporadic outage reports but nothing widespread. https://x.com/scgovEOC/status/1820063372735611283

8:30 a.m. Sarasota Memorial planning regular operations today; St. Armands Urgent Care closed

 Sarasota Memorial is planning for normal services and operations today. However, the St. Armands Urgent Care Center will be closed today due to potential flooding risk from the tropical storm. At this time, all other SMH urgent care centers will be open normal hours, 8 a.m. to 8 p.m.

Any additional updates, as needed, will be shared on SMH social media and on our webpage, https://www.smh.com/hurricane.

8 a.m. National Hurricane Center update as Tropical Storm Debby almost due west of Sarasota, Bradenton

Sarasota and Manatee counties remain under a Tropical Storm Warning and Storm Surge Watch as Tropical Storm Debby passes due west of the area.

The forecast for Sarasota and Manatee remains largely the same, with an expected 4-8 inches of rain, 2-4 feet of storm surge and the potential for tropical storm-force winds

Tropical Storm Debby is expected to strengthen throughout the day and be Hurricane Debby when it likely makes landfall in northern Florida on Monday.

"On the forecast track, the center will move across the eastern Gulf of Mexico through tonight and reach the Florida Big Bend coast Monday morning," according to the 8 a.m. National Hurricane Center update.

7:30 a.m.: Latest Sarasota, Bradenton Tropical Storm Debby National Weather Service forecast

According to the latest forecast from the National Weather Service Tampa office , Sarasota and Manatee counties can expect "conditions across west central and southwest Florida will continue to deteriorate through the day from south to north as bands of showers and isolated thunderstorms associated with Debby spread over the region."

4-8 inches of rain is expected in the area from Tropical Storm Debby, but even after the storm passes we can expect more rain and possible flooding.

"As Debby exits the area Monday night and Tuesday, broad southwest flow will persist off the Gulf of Mexico with feeder bands/convergent boundaries feeding into the storm to the north," reads the NWS forecast. "This will create a significant risk for bands of locally heavy rain to set up across portions of the forecast areas with potential for trailing convection creating locally excessive rainfall amounts."

Tropical Storm #Debby continues to move north! 💧Flooding rain: 6-12 in w/ isolated higher amounts 🌊Storm Surge: 4-7ft Levy Co, 3-5ft Hernando/Citrus 2- 4ft elsewhere 🌬️Tropical Storm force winds possible, except Hurricane force possible in Levy County #FLwx 🌀 pic.twitter.com/OEFRBC4JZy — NWS Tampa Bay (@NWSTampaBay) August 4, 2024

Read yesterday's Sarasota, Bradenton Tropical Storm Debby live blog here.

• About this Blog
• Getting Started

Measuring rainfall – it’s easy and difficult at the same time

This week we welcome long-time friend of GLOBE, Dr. Peggy LeMone, Chief Scientist for the GLOBE Program from 2003-2009, as our guest blogger. Dr. LeMone is currently working in the field of weather and cloud formation at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR).

Originally posted at http://spark.ucar.edu/blog/measuring-rainfall on September 23, 2013.

Dr. Peggy LeMone is an NCAR Senior Scientist who studies weather and cloud formation. For more information about her research, visit Peggy’s home page .

A guest post by NCAR scientist Peggy LeMone

The Boulder, Colorado area received huge amounts of rain in mid-September.  You also learned that rainfall amounts vary a lot. Which brings us to the questions – How do you measure rain?  And how accurate are the measurements?  Even though I have done weather research for many years, during this storm I was reminded how hard it is to measure rain accurately.

This is the story of my attempts to measure rain during the storm. It’s also about the many possible sources of error when making rain measurements – from old rain gauges to growing trees and even, possibly, inquisitive raccoons.

By Monday morning (September 16), I had measured over 16 inches, or 405 millimeters (mm), in our backyard rain gauge from the storm which began September 10.  The gauge is the same type the National Weather Service uses. It has a funnel that deposits rain into an inner tube with a smaller diameter (like this one ), but bigger. The inner tube’s diameter is just small enough to make the depth of rain ten times what it would be in a gauge without the tube and funnel.  Thus, each inch in the tube is equivalent to 0.1 inches (a tenth of an inch) of rainfall.  This is equivalent to how the GLOBE rain gauge measures rain: the inner tube acts like a 10x magnifying glass for the area of the rain gauge.  This makes it easier to read accurately!

My gauge is old. I inherited it from a weather-observing neighbor who moved away.  The funnel and inner tube doesn’t quite fit, so, I leave the gauge open and then pour the rain into the inner tube using the funnel.

The rain gauge, Credit: Peggy LeMone

On the morning of September 12th, the gauge was so full and heavy, with over seven inches (178 mm) of rain that I decided to stick a meter stick in the gauge to measure the rain amount, and save pouring into the inner tube for the end of the storm.  The gauge tilts slightly, so I took a measurement on the uptilt side and the downtilt side and calculated an average.   That evening I found that the bottom of the gauge sagged in the middle, leading to an even deeper measurement than the downtilt side.  With these flaws, the lack of the ten-to-one exaggeration of depth, and some measurements being taken in the dark with a flashlight, my data were only approximate. I recorded measurements to within the nearest quarter inch (see the graph below).

Were my measurements accurate? On Friday morning, September 13, I took measurement using a more accurate method to compare with my estimates.  After bailing out five full tubes of rain, I poured the remaining water through the funnel into the tube to a depth of 13.5 inches (343 mm), spilling a little bit during this process.  The result was 0.38 inches (9.5 mm) more than my rough estimate from the night before – a storm total of 14.52 inches (369 mm) up to this time. On the graph, this is marked as 1. (The lower shows the uncorrected values.)

But the rain hadn’t stopped.  I awoke on the morning of September 15 th and heard reports that up to 2 inches (51 mm) of rain fell overnight. I went outside to check our gauge – only to see that it had been knocked over (probably by raccoons).  Fortunately, I have a second rain gauge in my backyard – a plastic gauge that registered about 0.25 inches (6 mm). I added a conservative 0.2 inches (5 mm), since this gauge was under trees (marked as 2 on the graph).

The final number:  16.37 inches (416 mm) of rain, more or less.

Why do I add “more or less”?   Because there is uncertainty in the measurements. The metal gauge had been in the same place for several years, but I have moved it in the past year away from a growing tree.  I noticed on September 13 that the tree had intruded again: the end of one branch was about 10-15 feet (2-3 meters) over the gauge, or slightly to the east. Runoff from this branch could have added to the total before I moved the gauge four feet (~1 meter) to the west for the last two measurements.  It is also possible that the 0.98 inches (25 mm) could be high, but I doubt it: I had briefly run a sprinkler hose at a low setting, but I had moved the gauge out of the way and I turned the water off immediately once the rain started.  Switching the rain gauges adds uncertainty and so does the previously-mentioned spillage when I poured the remaining water in the gauge into the tube. Also, because my rain gauge was open at the top, some of the water could have evaporated, although evaporation was probably minimal, given the high relative humidity.

The exposure of the rain gauge is undoubtedly the greatest source of error.  According to the National Weather Service and CoCoRAHS (both of which use citizen volunteers to measure rainfall), “exposure” of the rain gauge is important. Rain may be blocked by nearby obstacles causing the number to be lower than it should. Or, rain may be blown into or away from the gauge by wind gusts.  The recommendation is that the gauge be about twice the distance from the height of the nearest obstacles, but still sheltered from the wind.

The gauge was certainly sheltered from the wind.  It is located about 10 feet (~2 meters) south of the house, which is about 15 feet (5 meters) high, and to the west of a fence and small trees as well as the tree in the photograph.   There is a much smaller tree to the southwest.

All the obstacles suggest that some rain could have been blocked from reaching the gauge, which would imply that the rainfall total is too small.  On the other hand, some rain might have been running down the branch in the picture. (In fact, because of the large amount, I thought this might be the main effect before doing some research on exposure)

It is also recommended that the gauge be level, which it wasn’t.  I’m not too worried about this, since it was nearly vertical.

The conclusion?  There was a lot of rain.  It could have been an inch (25 mm) more or less than my measurement. Acknowledging this is called reporting error. It doesn’t mean that the measurements are wrong, it just gives an idea of how accurate they are. My total was not the largest; there were at least two other measurements near 18 inches (457 mm).

Now that I’ve described all that can go wrong measuring rainfall, let me add that, putting a rain gauge in the right place, and taking an accurate rainfall measurement is fairly easy. If you have a perfect cylinder, such as a GLOBE rain gauge, simply stick a ruler in and read the depth (make sure to correct for any offset of the “zero” line and correct for this offset; and see if the ruler pushes the water level up very much).

If you don’t have a rain gauge but have a bucket (or glass) with sides that aren’t straight up and down, you’ll need to do a little math to figure it out. Here’s what you’ll need to do:

• Measure the diameter of the bucket at the level of the rain.  Subtract out twice the thickness of the walls.
• Measure the diameter of the bucket at the bottom in the same way.
• Calculate the average of the two diameters.
• Divide by two to find the average radius.
• Find the average volume of rain = Depth x radius x radius x 3.14.
• Measure the diameter
• Divide the diameter by 2 to get the radius
• Area = radius x radius x 3.14 (remember that Area = pi x radius 2 )
• Divide the rainfall volume by this area to get the rainfall.

It would be an interesting activity to put several buckets (or rain gauges) in different places in a field, your back yard, or your schoolyard to see how much the measurements vary within the area. Soup cans, though not perfect, would work pretty well for the activity, especially if they’re the same size.  I might try this during the next rainstorm.  (I hope not too soon!)

Does your school collect precipitation data? Have you had an extreme weather event that you were able to record? Let us know by adding a comment!

5 Responses to Measuring rainfall – it’s easy and difficult at the same time

Thank you for taking the time to remind us that even scientists are human, and that doing science isn’t so easy! We are just glad you are Okay!

Thank you for sharing. I understand a lot when I read your article

All the obstacles suggest that some rain could have been blocked from reaching the gauge, which would imply that the rainfall total is too small. On the other hand, some rain might have been running down the branch in the picture.

Thank you for sharing. I got a lot from it.

Tks for sharing

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You are here, learn how to use a rain gauge more effectively.

AMES, Iowa – Most of us know how to use a rain gauge, or at least most of us think that we know how. Set it outdoors before a rainfall, check it after the storm has passed, and then tell your friends and neighbors how much fell.

While those may be the basics – if you want to get an “accurate” measurement of precipitation, you probably need to do a little more work.

Madelynn Wuestenberg, agricultural climatology specialist with Iowa State University Extension and Outreach, will explain the best practices for selecting and using a rain gauge at this year’s Farm Progress Show, Aug. 27-29 near Boone.

Her display will include different kinds of rain gauges, and she will test participants’ knowledge of how to read different gauges. She will also explain how an automated rain gauge works – a more sophisticated device, which is used to automatically send data to a data logger. This type of rain gauge helps measure total rainfall, as well as rainfall frequency and intensity.

“I will be highlighting how people can become weather reporters and how to correctly read a rain gauge,” said Wuestenberg. “We need citizen scientists to help improve weather predictions and we need to empower individuals that they have the capacity and knowledge to record weather data.”

Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network

She will give special attention to how rain gauges are used for the CoCoRaHS program , which stands for Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network.

The program began in 1987 and encourages the use of low-cost measurement tools, used by trained individuals with the goal of providing high quality data for natural resources, education and research initiatives.

The data from CoCoRaHS participants is publicly available and is shown on the program’s online mapping system.

“These are ‘citizen scientists’ who are providing important data that is used to inform and validate weather data, education and drought monitoring,” said Wuestenberg. “The program empowers individuals to have the capacity and the knowledge to gather this data, and make accurate assessments about their own precipitation.”

Today, more than 26,000 active precipitation observers record their data in the United States, Canada, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam and the Bahamas.

Iowa has about 170 active participants on record, and Wuestenberg is hoping to expand that number.

One of Iowa’s contributors is Mark Licht, associate professor and cropping systems specialist with Iowa State University Extension and Outreach.

He will be on hand at the show to discuss how to take good measurements, and what the information means for crop farmers.

"I will be able to explain not only how to collect rainfall totals, but also speak about the importance of rainfall for crop production,” he said.

Pin your location

The climate exhibit space will also include a push-pin map of the Midwest for people to pinpoint where they live. By doing so, Wuestenberg hopes to bring attention to areas where CoCoRaHS participants are active – and where more are still needed.

“If you live somewhere where this is a significant gap in reporting, we could really use you as a reporter through CoCoRaHS,” she said.

The Iowa State University exhibit space can be found at the corner of 7 th Street and Central Avenue.

Wuestenberg can be reached at 515-294-6014 or [email protected] .

Shareable photo: An outdoor rain gauge, by Henry Reges/CoCoRaHS HQ. The citizen science nonprofit group Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network (CoCoRaHS) involves the public in collecting local precipitation information to share on the CoCoRaHS interactive network.

Madelynn Wuestenberg

515-294-6014 [email protected]

515-294-5597 [email protected]

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Term Collaborative Sets Study Sessions Flashcard Pages About FlashcardMachine Support Form Privacy Policy Terms of Use Getting Started Apple App Store Google Play Amazon Apps Skip to main content Keyboard shortcuts for audio player An unexpected item is blocking cities' climate change prep: obsolete rainfall records Lauren Sommer Heavy rain from the remnants of Hurricane Ida flooded roads and expressways in New York in 2021. In a hotter climate, rainstorms are becoming more intense. Spencer Platt/Getty Images hide caption Heavy rain from the remnants of Hurricane Ida flooded roads and expressways in New York in 2021. In a hotter climate, rainstorms are becoming more intense. American cities are poised to spend billions of dollars to improve their water systems under the federal infrastructure bill , the largest water investment in the nation's history. Those new sewers and storm drains will need to withstand rainfall that's becoming more intense in a changing climate. But as cities make plans to tear up streets and pour cement, most have little to no information about how climate change will worsen future storms. Many cities are still building their infrastructure for the climate of the past, using rainfall records that haven't been updated in decades. Those federal precipitation reports , which analyze historical rainfall data to tell cities what kinds of storms to plan for, are only sporadically updated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Rainfall reports for some states are 50 years old, which means they don't reflect how the climate has already changed in recent decades. And states themselves have to pay for those updates. The disconnect between the kinds of upgrades a changing climate demands and the data available to communities is already imperiling lives. Heavier downpours are taking an increasing toll on cities, inundating homes and roads. Last summer, for example, 50 people drowned when the remnants of Hurricane Ida overwhelmed urban stormwater drainage systems in the Northeast. Now, as NOAA determines how to spend its own infrastructure bill funding, many cities are hoping the agency commits to doing regular, nationwide updates of its precipitation reports, known as Atlas 14, to provide a systematic snapshot of how storms have already intensified. Still, those up-to-date records won't show how the climate will continue to change in the future. So many flood planners are also pushing NOAA to fund and release local forecasts of how rainfall is expected to intensify going forward, to ensure that infrastructure projects built today won't become obsolete as temperatures warm. "It's core to probably hundreds or thousands of development decisions everyday," says Chad Berginnis, executive director of the Association of State Floodplain Managers. "If we have over a trillion dollars going out the door in infrastructure, then let's have the very best standards and data so we're designing this stuff right." Infrastructure built for the climate of the past When Hurricane Harvey hit Houston in the summer of 2017, the slow-moving storm dropped as much as 60 inches of rain. The destruction left in its wake cost $125 billion with more than 100,000 homes damaged. But even before the hurricane hit, city planners had begun to realize that storms, much weaker than Harvey, were becoming a greater danger because the infrastructure wasn't designed for them. A firefighter checks on stalled cars on a flooded street in Sun Valley, Calif., during a 2017 storm. When rainfall overwhelms stormwater systems, flooding can happen far from a river or creek. David McNew/Getty Images hide caption A firefighter checks on stalled cars on a flooded street in Sun Valley, Calif., during a 2017 storm. When rainfall overwhelms stormwater systems, flooding can happen far from a river or creek. In any city, the only thing stopping rainwater from flooding roads and homes is a lowly, unglamorous piece of infrastructure: the storm drain. In heavily paved areas, rain isn't absorbed into the ground, and the runoff needs somewhere to go. Storm drains connect to miles of underground pipelines that carry runoff away. The size of storm drains and pipes limits how much water the system can handle. When they're overwhelmed, flooding can happen in neighborhoods far from any river or creek, where residents likely lack flood insurance. Cities decide on the size of a stormwater system by using a particular kind of storm known as a "design storm." In some places, the stormwater infrastructure is designed for a storm that's considered a 1-in-5-year storm, or that has a 20% chance of hitting. Other cities plan for an even more severe storm, like a 1-in-25-year storm. To figure out how much rain those storms will unleash, many communities turn to the federal government. NOAA releases precipitation records through its Atlas 14 reports , which analyze the historical rainfall in a given region and then tell local planners how much rain is produced in both common and extreme storms. But for many states, those records are outdated. Prior to Harvey, some local agencies in Texas were using NOAA records last released in 1961 . Harris County, where Houston is located, analyzed rainfall data on its own, but the records were still 2 decades old. Regional planners knew urban flooding was on the rise. Intersections and roadways were getting swamped with water in heavy rain. But to get new precipitation data that captures how storms have already changed in recent years, local or state agencies need to pay the federal government for it under NOAA's policy. The agency itself has historically not had the budget to conduct the studies. A group of local flood agencies in Texas, along with the regional office of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, raised $1.75 million for a statewide study in 2016. The results confirmed what they suspected: Rainstorms have already gotten more intense. The NOAA analysis found that a major storm, known as the 1-in-100-year storm, had become almost 30% wetter. Instead of 13 inches of rain, it now dropped almost 17 inches of rain in Harris County. "It may have been a case of 'be careful what you wish for,'" says Craig Maske, chief planning officer at the Harris County Flood Control District. "We did anticipate it increasing somewhat, just not quite that much." Beefing up infrastructure at a cost The new information had a ripple effect through the various entities in Houston responsible for the metro area's infrastructure. Rainfall numbers not only determine how stormwater systems are built, but also roads, highways, bridges and housing developments. "Everybody, after taking the collective gasp of seeing how the rainfall depths had increased, knew this was going to affect how they developed and where they developed," Maske says. Transportation agencies suddenly faced building their projects to withstand more water. The Houston-Galveston Area Council, which oversees transportation planning in the area, says major projects in planning stages became $150 million to $200 million more expensive, largely due to the flood safety needs. One-third of the major roads and highways there are vulnerable to flooding, according to an agency analysis, including critical thoroughfares needed by first responders in a disaster. Rainfall from the remnants of Hurricane Ida flooded homes in New Jersey. Without updated rainfall records, cities risk building infrastructure that can't withstand intensifying storms. Michael M. Santiago/Getty Images hide caption Rainfall from the remnants of Hurricane Ida flooded homes in New Jersey. Without updated rainfall records, cities risk building infrastructure that can't withstand intensifying storms. Despite the added cost, experiencing a record-breaking disaster seemed to change the conversation in the community. "The fallout from Hurricane Harvey is still ongoing here," says Craig Raborn, director of transportation of the Houston-Galveston Area Council. "So when we do public engagement processes for major infrastructure projects, major roads, we hear a lot more comment now about flooding than we used to see in the past." Extreme storms getting more extreme As temperatures get hotter, heavy storms are producing more rainfall because warmer air can hold more water vapor. "Throughout most of the country, big storms are happening more often," says Daniel Wright, assistant professor in civil and environmental engineering at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. "There's every reason to expect that rainfall will continue to intensify in the future." The Northeast and Midwestern U.S. have seen the biggest increases, with the heaviest storms producing 55% more rain today in the Northeast compared to 1958, according to the 2018 National Climate Assessment. Outdated rainfall records don't reflect those changes. Wright and his colleagues looked at the Atlas 14 reports and found that in some places, extreme storms are happening twice as often as those reports predicted. Under its current system, NOAA only updates the Atlas 14 information when states both request and pay for the reports. As a result, many states are using data from the early 2000s . The last update for the Pacific Northwest was in 1973. Officials at NOAA say this haphazard system is far from ideal since it creates a patchwork of climate data. Analyzing data for only a few states at a time also adds to the overall cost. "It would be much more efficient to do the whole country all at once," says Mark Glaudemans, director of NOAA's Geo-Intelligence Division, which oversees Atlas 14. "So by doing it in the piecemeal fashion that we have now, it does make it more expensive." Updating precipitation data is briefly mentioned in the $2 trillion infrastructure bill passed by Congress last year. NOAA officials say they're currently developing the agency's spending plan for the funds and can't comment on whether Atlas 14 will be part of it. Flood experts are urging the agency to prioritize nationwide rainfall reports. Without that information, cities aren't able to strengthen their infrastructure to handle today's storms, as Houston is doing. "The cost to do this is almost decimal dust when it comes to the overall federal budget," says Berginnis, whose group wrote to NOAA about the matter. "We're only talking about $3 million to $5 million a year to produce these data." Two bills now pending in Congress would also commit NOAA to doing regular updates, beyond what the infrastructure bill provides for the next decade. The PRECIP Act specifies that Atlas 14 would be released every 10 years, while the FLOODS Act would set the updates for every five years. Cities lack climate change forecasts Still, even with the most up-to-date rainfall information, climate scientists warn that infrastructure is still likely to fail, since NOAA's Atlas 14 reports look at the past, not the future. Nationwide studies like the 2018 National Climate Assessment show extreme precipitation will continue to get worse around the country as temperatures get hotter. A study last fall from the Northeast Regional Climate Center found extreme rainfall in New Jersey would likely increase by 20% by 2100 , compared to 1999. Some counties could see a 50% increase. But when cities look for climate-driven rainfall information tailored to their region, they're mostly out of luck since NOAA doesn't conduct that analysis. "There's no book," says Anna Roche, project manager at the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. "There haven't been plans that have been developed for any of this stuff. So every city in the United States is grappling with this." Water drains on a street flooded by rain from Hurricane Harvey in 2017 in Galveston, Texas. After getting new rainfall data, some Texas cities are building infrastructure to handle more water. Scott Olson/Getty Images hide caption Water drains on a street flooded by rain from Hurricane Harvey in 2017 in Galveston, Texas. After getting new rainfall data, some Texas cities are building infrastructure to handle more water. In the absence of relevant information from NOAA, San Francisco and a handful of other cities around the U.S. have partnered with local universities and researchers for localized climate change projections. San Francisco is working with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory scientists, who are running complex computer models that forecast future rainfall change. In the Pacific Northwest, both Portland and Seattle partnered with the University of Washington's Climate Impact Group. The research team created an online tool so cities in Oregon and Washington could see how extreme rain would shift. In Seattle, the 1-in-25-year storm could be more than 20% worse by the 2080s. Realizing the scale of that change, Seattle enhanced a major stormwater control project that was underway. The Ship Canal Water Quality project was planned with a 14-foot diameter tunnel, designed to capture stormwater so the system isn't overwhelmed in big storms. The climate change projections spurred the city to upsize it to 18 feet wide. "We're thinking this is a 100-year investment, so we need to be using our best information about what 100 years is going to look like and not designing things now that will be obsolete," says Leslie Webster, drainage and wastewater planning manager at Seattle Public Utilities. "We're confident that the change in sizing will provide a lot more resilience in the future. But, you know, it also increased the price tag significantly." Still, while major cities are beginning to integrate climate data into their planning, smaller cities without connections to leading universities have little information to go on. Many are urging NOAA to release climate projections, along with a new nationwide Atlas 14 update, to provide reliable information for infrastructure planning. Other federal agencies already provide localized climate projections, like the U.S. Department of Agriculture's map showing how plant growing zones could shift. "Rural and smaller communities simply don't have the resources and typically access to technology to make those estimates," Berginnis says. The added cost of preparing for climate change comes at a tough time for most cities, which already have a backlog of maintenance for their stormwater systems. In 2020, municipal utilities nationwide faced a combined funding shortfall of $8.5 billion, according to a study from the Water Environment Federation. "Municipalities are facing an unbelievable gap in trying to keep up with stormwater," says Darren Olsen of the American Society of Civil Engineers. "It's expensive to upgrade infrastructure and stormwater infrastructure, because it's out of sight, it's out of mind." Upsizing a city's entire stormwater system, with miles of underground pipes that would need to be dug up, is far too expensive for most cities. Instead, many are looking at using green infrastructure, where pavement is replaced with plants that allow rainwater to soak into the ground. The hope for many is that the infrastructure bill provides much-needed funding to make their systems climate-ready with both traditional and green projects. "I do think it's like a cultural shift that we have to make in terms of how we plan for our future," says Nishant Parulekar, civil engineer with the city of Portland. "We'll have to be very adaptable in terms of how we plan and build." climate change extreme weather infrastructure Gauging Variability: Field-Level Comparisons Of Rain Gauge Measurements Versus FieldView™ Rainfall Estimates by Jeff Massey, Weather Science Lead, and Zach Wienhoff, Agricultural Meteorologist Intern, Climate LLC September 19, 2018 October 5, 2017 October 13, 2023, november 2, 2021. While harvest has started early for much of the nation, farmers often tell us that a big challenge during this crucial time of year is deciding when their fields are dry enough and ready to work. As the focus on weather intensifies, farmers who use Climate FieldView™ often ask why our field-level estimates may differ from a rain gauge located on, or near, a field. Listen to the "Analyzing Rainfall On Each Field" podcast now Last year, we explored how our estimates are created, how to interpret them, and how we have improved them recently . As part of our work on the Climate Weather Science team, we study how rainfall can vary a lot across a single field or an entire operation. This variability is why FieldView™ rainfall reports provide an average estimate of rainfall over a field – these rainfall estimates at the field level can be more valuable for decision-making than individual rain gauge observations. Exploring rainfall variability at the field level Rainfall can vary significantly at the field level for many reasons. For example, small storms, and small-scale features in larger storms, can produce very different rainfall amounts over short distances. To better understand rainfall variability across a field, we deployed nine high-quality rain gauges on a field at our Climate Research Farm in Martinsville, Ill. – and what we discovered was very surprising! When a half inch or more of rain fell, the average difference between the highest and lowest rainfall observations was over 0.2 inches, which is much higher than we anticipated. Below are three separate 24-hour rainfall totals for the nine rain gauges at Martinsville. For event A, rainfall varied from 0.76 inches to 1.33 inches across the field! A single rain gauge measurement could have greatly overestimated or underestimated the average rainfall that fell on this field, possibly leading to a problematic field management decision. While it is unrealistic to expect you to place and check nine or more rain gauges in each of your fields, the good news is this is not necessary. FieldView rainfall estimates represent an average for a field, and our model takes variability into account so you will get a more representative read of the rainfall in your field. This is also why our FieldView estimates may be different from a single rain gauge on a field, and why that can actually be a good thing. Exploring rainfall variability at the operation level Now we know that rainfall can vary significantly even across a single field, but how different is rainfall across neighboring fields? To answer this question, we selected all rain gauges within a 10-mile radius near Des Moines, Iowa and analyzed the observed rainfall in comparison to FieldView rainfall estimates. Below is one example of 24-hour rainfall observations at 14 gauges in this region, along with gridded FieldView estimates. Rain gauge observations varied between 0.5 and 2.25 inches over only 10.5 miles! FieldView rainfall estimates showed even more variation from 0.4 to 2.6 inches because FieldView provides additional detail in areas without rain gauges. This analysis shows that there can be extraordinary and impactful differences in rainfall from one field to another across an entire farming operation. FieldView rainfall estimates better represent these important field-to-field differences even compared to data from multiple rain gauges. The benefits of FieldView rainfall reports FieldView rainfall estimates are available in rainfall reports that provide an average estimate of rainfall over a field. These estimates: Eliminate the need to check a rain gauge in the field by making the information accessible through email notifications and in our app Provide field-level rainfall estimates to ensure you have more and better information to make short-term farm operation decisions, like if a field is workable on a specific day We invite you to use FieldView weather features to help you get the most out of every acre during harvest season – and throughout the year. If you have any questions, feel free to contact the Climate Support Team at (888) 924-7475 or [email protected] . About The Authors Jeff Massey is the weather science lead for Climate LLC. He has a Ph.D. in atmospheric science and has been with Climate for more than three years, focusing on delivering agronomically relevant weather information to farmers across the nation. Zach Wienhoff is an agricultural meteorologist intern on the weather team with an expertise in rainfall processes. He is currently working towards his Ph.D. in meteorology at the University of Oklahoma with a focus in severe thunderstorm and tornado dynamics. Services and products offered by Climate LLC are subject to the customer agreeing to our Terms of Service. Our services provide estimates or recommendations based on models. These do not guarantee results. Before making financial, risk management and farming decisions, agronomists, commodities brokers and other service professionals should be consulted. More information at http://climate.com/disclaimers . FieldView™ is a trademark of Climate LLC. © 2022 Climate LLC. All Rights Reserved. Make daily decisions about your fields quickly, easily and confidently. Download the app today! Data Connectivity Data Visualization Performance Analysis Field Health Imagery Variable Rate Prescriptions Fertility & Crop Protection Product Brochure Press Releases Dealer Locator Data Privacy © 2022 Climate LLC. All Rights Reserved. Website Terms of Use Climate FieldView Terms of Service Privacy Statement Privacy Statement FAQ Health Data Privacy Statement Election 2024 Entertainment Newsletters Photography AP Buyline Personal Finance AP Buyline Shopping Press Releases Israel-Hamas War Russia-Ukraine War Global elections Asia Pacific Latin America Middle East Delegate Tracker AP & Elections 2024 Paris Olympic Games Auto Racing Movie reviews Book reviews Financial Markets Business Highlights Financial wellness Artificial Intelligence Social Media Hollywood movies rarely reflect climate change crisis. These researchers want to change that This image released by Warner Bros. Pictures shows Jason Momoa in a scene from “Aquaman and the Lost Kingdom.” (Warner Bros. Pictures via AP) This image released by Netflix shows Leonardo DiCaprio as Dr. Randall Mindy and Jennifer Lawrence as Kate Dibiasky in a scene from “Don’t Look Up.” (Niko Tavernise/Netflix via AP) This image released by Netflix shows Leonardo DiCaprio as Dr. Randall Mindy in a scene from “Don’t Look Up.” (Niko Tavernise/Netflix via AP) This image released by Netflix shows Jessica Henwick, left, Daniel Craig, center, and Janelle Monáe in a scene from “Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery.” (John Wilson/Netflix via AP) This image released by Amazon Studios shows Chris Pratt in a scene from “The Tomorrow War.” (Frank Masi/Amazon Studios via AP) Copy Link copied PORTLAND, Maine (AP) — Aquaman might not mind if the oceans rise, but moviegoers might. That’s one of the takeaways from a new study conducted by researchers who set out to determine if today’s Hollywood blockbusters are reflective of the current climate crisis . The vast majority of movies failed the “climate reality check” proposed by the authors, who surveyed 250 movies from 2013 to 2022. The test is simple — the authors looked to see if a movie presented a story in which climate change exists, and whether a character knows it does. One film that passed the test was the 2017 superhero movie “Justice League, " in which Jason Momoa’s Aquaman character says, “Hey, I don’t mind if the oceans rise” to Ben Affleck’s Bruce Wayne. But most movies fell short — fewer than 10% of the 250 films passed, and climate change was mentioned in two or more scenes of fewer than 4% of the films. That’s out of touch with a moviegoing public that wants “to see their reality reflected on screen,” said Colby College English professor Matthew Schneider-Mayerson, lead researcher on the study. “The top line is just that the vast majority of films, popular films produced over the last 10 years in the United States, are not portraying the world as it is,” Schneider-Mayerson said. “They are portraying a world that is now history or fantasy — a world in which climate change is not happening.” Researchers at Maine’s Colby College published the study in April along with Good Energy, a Los Angeles-based environmental consultancy. The results were peer reviewed, and the authors are seeking publication in scientific journals. The researchers view the test as a way for audience members, writers and filmmakers to evaluate the representation of climate change on screen. AP AUDIO: Hollywood movies rarely reflect climate change crisis. These researchers want to change that AP correspondent Margie Szaroleta reports on a study that finds few Hollywood films put climate change in their storylines. Some results were surprising. Movies that at first glance appear to have little overlap with climate or the environment passed the test. “Marriage Story,” Noah Baumbach’s emotive 2019 drama about the collapse of a relationship, passed the test in part because Adam Driver’s character is described as “energy conscious,” Schneider-Mayerson said. The 2022 whodunnit “Glass Onion” and the 2019 folk horror movie “Midsommar” were others to pass the test. Some that were more explicitly about climate change, such as the 2021 satire “Don’t Look Up,” also passed. But “San Andreas,” a 2015 movie about a West Coast earthquake disaster, and “The Meg,” a 2018 action movie set in the ocean, did not. The authors narrowed the selection of movies by excluding films not set on Earth or set before 2006 or after 2100. They found streaming services had a higher percentage of movies that included climate change than the major studios did. The study is “valuable for marketing purposes, informational purposes, data accumulation,” said Harry Winer, director of sustainability at the Kanbar Institute of Film and Television at the New York University Tisch School of the Arts. Winer, who was not involved in the study, said it could also help serve as an incentive to connect audiences with climate stories. “The audience will be more open to hearing a dialogue about what is right and what is wrong,” Winer said. “It’s a conversation starter.” The study authors said they see the climate reality check as a kind of Bechdel-Wallace test for climate change. Alison Bechdel, a cartoonist, is credited with popularizing that test in the 1980s by incorporating her friend Liz Wallace’s test about gender representation in film into a comic strip. The test asks if a movie includes at least two female characters who have a conversation about something other than a man. Bechdel herself spoke highly of the study’s climate test, which she described as “long overdue” in a social media post during this year’s Academy Awards season. Bechdel said in an e-mail to The Associated Press that “for a movie set in the present to ignore this existential threat just doesn’t make sense anymore” in the age of climate change. “I do worry that screenwriters might do it in a kind of rote way, which could be counterproductive, just like rote ‘strong female characters’ are,” Bechdel said. “But injecting an awareness of our communal plight into the stories we ingest seems like a no-brainer.” 483 IMAGES Solved The data represents the daily rainfall (in inches) Average annual rainfall in inches, 1961-1990. From PRISM (1998). A Solved The data represents the daily rainfall (in inches) Categorical Rainfall scores POD (top left), FAR (top right), CSI(middle [ANSWERED] The data represents the daily rainfall in inches for one Long term rainfall records -example in DWA's Interim WRMIS VIDEO Rainfall Analysis Tool Gulmarg Records Rainfall Tourists Locals Happy, Keep watching reports... Voice TV Urdu Aadil Dar దేవుడా! ఆ రోజు వర్షం పడకపోతే బాగుంటుంది This Is The Strongest Rainstorm I've Ever Seen COMMENTS Chemistry Chapter 2 Flashcards Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like A research team records the rainfall in inches per day in a prescribed area of the rain forest. The square footage of vegetation and relative plant density per square foot are also measured, The intensity, duration, and time of day of the precipitation are noted for each precipitation episode. The types of vegetation in the area ... Chem Chapter 3: Measurements & Calculations A research team records the rainfall in inches per day in a prescribed area of the rain forest. The square footage of vegetation and relative plant density per square foot are also measured. Chemistry cha[ter 2 study guide Chemistry cha [ter 2 study guide. a research team records the rainfall in inches per day in a prescribed area of the rain forest. The square footage of vegetation and relative plant density per square foot are also measured. Measuring rainfall In early September of 2013, the Boulder, Colorado, area had huge amounts of rain. Which brings us to the questions - How do you measure rain? And how accurate are the measurements? Even though I have done weather research for many years, during this storm I was reminded how hard it is to measure rain accurately. How Is Rainfall Measured? How is rainfall measured? What does it mean when it rains an inch? And how many gallons of water fall on your roof in a storm? Keep on reading to learn all about the math behind April showers and ... Syphons in tipping bucket rain gauges: How do they affect rainfall Abstract Tipping-bucket rain gauges (TBRGs) are widely used globally to record rainfall amounts over nominated accumulation durations such as 15-minute rainfall, hourly rainfall, and daily rainfall. To reduce the under-estimation of rainfall amounts that results from high rates of inflow to the tipping buckets in intense rainfall, small syphons are commonly installed between the rain ... New research shows how global warming is messing with our rainfall The past century of human-induced warming has increased rainfall variability over 75% of the Earth's land area—particularly over Australia, Europe and eastern North America, new research shows. Measuring precipitation: rain gauges and point precipitation data Recording rain gauges The National Weather Service (NWS) uses a recording rain gauge that weighs the collected precipitation every 15 minutes, converts that weight into a depth (again using the geometry of the funnel), and records the depth on a punch tape. Once a month, someone can visit the gauge, dump it out and put in a new punch tape. It's old school, but it works accurately and with ... PDF Microsoft Word A research team records the rainfall in inches per day in a prescribed area of the rain forest. The square footage of vegetation and relative plant density per square foot are also measured. PDF Chapter 2 Review Worksheet A research team records the rainfall in inches per day in an area of the rain forest. ... density per square foot are also measured. _____ b. The intensity, duration, and time of day of the precipitation are noted for each precipitation ... The information gathered by the research team indicates that rainfall has decreased Rainfall Records Of The World Sohra holds the world record for the highest rainfall received in one year after the village received 1,041.8 inches of rainfall in the 12 months between August 1st, 1860 and July 31st, 1861. The village also holds the world record for the highest rainfall received in a calendar month after it received 370 inches of rainfall in July 1861. chem ch.p 2 Flashcards chem ch.p 2. a research team records the rainfall in inches per day in a prescribed area of the rain forest.the square footage of vegetation and relative plant density per square foot are also measured. Live Tropical Storm Debby updates for Sarasota, Bradenton impacts The rainfall total by Sunday evening in Sarasota of 6.51 inches is already a record. Two tornadoes have been confirmed, along with one waterspout, from Debby. 7 p.m.: Manatee County warns of flood ... Measuring rainfall The Boulder, Colorado area received huge amounts of rain in mid-September. You also learned that rainfall amounts vary a lot. Which brings us to the questions - How do you measure rain? And how accurate are the measurements? Even though I have done weather research for many years, during this storm I was reminded how hard it is to measure rain accurately. PDF mc06se_cFMsr_i-vi.qxd A research team records the rainfall in inches per day in a prescribed area of the rain forest. The square footage of vegetation and relative plant density per square foot are also measured. Learn How to Use a Rain Gauge More Effectively She will also explain how an automated rain gauge works - a more sophisticated device, which is used to automatically send data to a data logger. This type of rain gauge helps measure total rainfall, as well as rainfall frequency and intensity. 1.4: Frequency, Frequency Tables, and Levels of Measurement Table 1.4.5 1.4. 5 represents the amount, in inches, of annual rainfall in a sample of towns. What fraction of towns surveyed get between 11.03 and 13.05 inches of rainfall each year? Chapter 2 Mixed Study Guide a. A research team records the rainfall in inches per day in a prescribed area of the rain forest. The Chem Unit 2 Test Chem Unit 2 Test Determine whether each of the following is an example of observation and data, a theory, a hypothesis, a control, or a model: A research team records the rainfall in inches per day in a prescribed area of the rain forest. The square footage of vegetation and relative plant density per square foot are also measured. Honors Chemistry Ch. 2 Sec. 1 Examples Flashcards Home Flashcards Chemistry Honors Chemistry Ch. 2 Sec. 1 Examples Why outdated rainfall records are blocking cities' climate change Cities are experiencing heavier storms and flooding as the climate gets hotter. But due to outdated rainfall records, many are still building infrastructure for the climate of the past. Chemistry Chapter 2 Flashcards A research team record the rainfall in inches per day in a prescribed area of the rain forest. The square footage of vegetation and relative plant density per square foot are also measured. Rain Gauge Measurements Versus FieldView™ Rainfall Estimates Rain gauge observations varied between 0.5 and 2.25 inches over only 10.5 miles! FieldView rainfall estimates showed even more variation from 0.4 to 2.6 inches because FieldView provides additional detail in areas without rain gauges. This analysis shows that there can be extraordinary and impactful differences in rainfall from one field to ... Researchers want Hollywood movies to reflect climate change crisis A team of researchers set out to determine if today's Hollywood blockbusters are reflective of the current climate crisis and found out they aren't most of the time. Measurements and Calculations Chapter 2 Review A research team records the rainfall in inches per day in a prescribed area of the rainforest. the square footage of vegetation and relative plant density per square foot are also measured. assignment essay homework paper phd report resume review speech thesis